Dynamic dopamine modulation in the basal ganglia: A neurocomputational account of cognitive deficits in medicated and nonmedicated Parkinsonism

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 51-72

  Frank, Michael J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE; LEVODOPA;

ARTICLE; ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK; BASAL GANGLION; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMPUTER MODEL; DOPAMINERGIC ACTIVITY; DRUG MONITORING; DRUG OVERDOSE; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; FRONTAL CORTEX; FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY; HUMAN; LEARNING; LEARNING DISORDER; MOTOR ACTIVITY; MOTOR CONTROL; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NERVE CELL NETWORK; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NERVE POTENTIAL; NEUROMODULATION; NONHUMAN; PARKINSON DISEASE; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHODYNAMICS; REINFORCEMENT; STIMULUS RESPONSE; TASK PERFORMANCE; WORKING MEMORY;

BASAL GANGLIA; BRAIN CHEMISTRY; COGNITION DISORDERS; DOPAMINE; FEEDBACK; HUMANS; MODELS, NEUROLOGICAL; NEURAL INHIBITION; NEURAL NETWORKS (COMPUTER); NONLINEAR DYNAMICS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PROBABILITY;

EID: 12544251990     PISSN: 0898929X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/0898929052880093     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Agid, Y., Ruberg, M., Hirsch, E., Raisman-Vozari, R., Vyas, S., Faucheux, B., Michel, P., Kastner, A., Blanchard, V., Damier, P., Villares, J., & Zhang, P. (1993). Are dopaminergic neurons selectively vulnerable to Parkinson's disease? Advances in Neurology, 60, 148-164.
2. Aizman, O., Brismar, H., Uhlen, P., Zettergren, E., Levet, A., Forssberg, H., Greengrad, P., & Aperia, A. (2000). Anatomical and physiological evidence for D and D dopamine receptor colocalization in neostriatal neurons. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 226-230.
3. Albin, R., Young, A., & Penney, J. (1989). The functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders. Trends in Neurosciences, 12, 366-375.
4. Alexander, G., & Crutcher, M. (1990). Preparation for movement: Neural representations of intended direction in three motor areas of the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology, 64, 133-150.
5. Alexander, G., Crutcher, M., & DeLong, M. (1990). Basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: Parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, "prefrontal" and "limbic" functions. In H. Uylings, C. Van Eden, J. De Bruin, M. Corner, & M. Feenstra (Eds.), The prefrontal cortex: Its structure, function, and pathology (pp. 119-146). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
6. Alexander, G. E., & Crutcher, M. D. (1990). Functional architecture of basal ganglia cicuits: neural substrates of parallel processing. Trends in Neurosciences, 13, 266-271.
7. Alexander, G. E., DeLong., M. R., & Strick, P. L. (1986). Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 9, 357-381.
8. Apicella, P., Scarnati, E., Ljungberg, T., & Schultz, W. (1992). Neuronal activity in monkey striatum related to the expectation of predictable environmental events. Journal of Neurophysiology, 68, 945-960.
9. Arnsten, A., Cai, J., Murphy, B., & Goldman-Rakic, P. (1994). Dopamine D receptor mechanisms in the cognitive performance of young adult aged monkeys. Psychopharmacology, 116, 143-151.
10. Arnsten, A., Cai, J., Steere, J., & Goldman-Rakic, P. (1995). Dopamine D receptor mechanisms contribute to age-related cognitive decline: The effects of quinpirole on memory and motor performance in monkeys. Journal of Neuroscience, 15, 3429-3439.
11. Ashby, F., Alfonso-Reese, L., Turken, A., & Waldron, E. (1998). A neuropsychological theory of multiple systems in category learning. Psychological Review, 105, 442-481.
12. Ashby, F., Maddox, W., & Bohil, C. (2002). Observational versus feedback training in rule-based and information-integration category learning. Memory & Cognition, 30, 666-677.
13. Ashby, F., Noble, S., Ell, S., Filoteo, J., & Waldron, E. (2003). Category learning deficits in Parkinson's Disease. Neuropsychology, 17, 133-142.
14. Ashby, F., Queller, S., & Berretty, P. (1999). On the dominance of unidimensional rules in unsupervised categorization. Perception and Psychophysics, 61, 1178-1199.
15. Bear, M. F., & Malenka, R. C. (1994). Synaptic plasticity: LTP and LTD. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 4, 389-399.
16. Beiser, D. G., & Houk, J. C. (1998). Model of cortical-basal ganglionic processing: Encoding the serial order of sensory events. Journal of Neurophysiology, 79, 3168-3188.
17. Bloch, B., & LeMoine, C. (1994). Neostriatal dopamine receptors. Trends in Neurosciences, 17, 3-4.
18. Brown, J., Bullock, D., & Grossberg, S. (2004). How laminar frontal cortex and basal ganglia circuits interact to control planned and reactive saccades. Neural Networks, 17, 471-510.
19. Calabresi, P., Saiardi, A., Pisani, A., Baik, J., Centonze, D., Mercuri, N., Bernardi, G., & Borrelli, E. (1997). Abnormal synaptic plasticity in the striatum of mice lacking dopamine D2 receptors. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 4536-4544.
20. Centonze, D., Picconi, B., Gubellini, P., Bernardi, G., & Calabresi, P. (2001). Dopaminergic control of synaptic plasticity in the dorsal striatum. European Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 1071-1077.
21. Chevalier, G., & Deniau, J. M. (1990). Disinhibition as a basic process in the expression of striatal functions. Trends in Neurosciences, 13, 277-280.
22. Cohen, J. D., Braver, T. S., & Brown, J. W. (2002). Computational perspectives on dopamine function in prefrontal cortex. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 12, 223-229.
23. Cohen, J. D., & Servan-Schreiber, D. (1992). Context, cortex, and dopamine: A connectionist approach to behavior and biology in schizophrenia. Psychological Review, 99, 45-77.
24. Cools, R., Barker, R., Sahakian, B., & Robbins, T. (2001). Enhanced or impaired cognitive function in Parkinson's disease as a function of dopaminergic medication and task demands. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 1136-1143.
25. Cools, R., Barker, R., Sahakian, B., & Robbins, T. (2003). L-Dopa medication remediates cognitive inflexibility, but increases impulsivity in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia, 41, 1431-1441.
26. Cools, R., Clark, L., Owen, A. M., & Robbins, T. W. (2002). Defining the neural mechanisms of probabilistic reversal learning using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 4563-4567.
27. Crofts, H., Dalley, J., Collins, P., Van Denderen, J., Everitt, B., Robbins, T., & Roberts, A. (2001). Differential effects of 6-OHDA lesions of the frontal cortex and caudate nucleus on the ability to acquire an attentional set. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 1015-1026.
28. Crutcher, M., & Alexander, G. (1990). Movement-related neuronal activity selectively coding either direction or muscle pattern in three motor areas of the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology, 64, 151-163.
29. Dias, R., Robbins, T. W., & Roberts, A. C. (1996). Dissociation in prefrontal cortex of affective and attentional shifts. Nature, 380, 69.
30. Doya, K. (2000). Complementary roles of the basal ganglia and cerebellum in learning and motor control. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 10, 732-739.
31. Dubois, B., Malapani, C., Verin, M., Rogelet, P., Deweer, B., & Pillon, B. (1994). Cognitive functions in the basal ganglia: The model of Parkinson disease. Revue Neurologique (Paris), 150, 763-770.
32. Durstewitz, D., Seamans, J. K., & Sejnowski, T. J. (2000). Dopamine-mediated stabilization of delay-period activity in a network model of prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 83, 1733.
33. Eyny, Y. S., & Horvitz, J. C. (2003). Opposing roles of D1 and D2 receptors in appetitive conditioning. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 1584-1587.
34. Filion, M., & Tremblay, L. (1991). Abnormal spontaneous activity of globus pallidus neurons in monkey with MPTP-induced parkinsonism. Brain Research, 547, 142-151.
35. Finch, D. (1999). Plasticity of responses to synaptic inputs in rat ventral striatal neurons after repeated administration of the dopamine D2 antagonist raclopride. Synapse, 31, 297-301.
36. Foote, S., & Morrison, J. (1987). Extrathalamic modulation of cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 10, 67-85.
37. Frank, M. J., Loughry, B., & O'Reilly, R. C. (2001). Interactions between the frontal cortex and basal ganglia in working memory: A computational model. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience. 1, 137-160.
38. Frank, M., Rudy, J., & O'Reilly, R. (2003). Transitivity, flexibility, conjunctive representations and the hippocampus: II. A computational analysis. Hippocampus, 13, 341-354.
39. Gerfen, C. (1992). The neostriatal mosaic: Multiple levels of compartmental organization in the basal ganglia. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 15, 285-320.
40. Gerfen, C. (2000). Molecular effects of dopamine on striatal projection pathways. Trends in Neurosciences, 23, S64-S70.
41. Gerfen, C., & Keefe, K. (1994). Neostriatal dopamine receptors. Trends in Neurosciences, 17, 2-3.
42. Gerfen, C., Keefe, K., & Gauda, E. (1995). D and D dopamine receptor function in the striatum: Coactivation of D- and D-dopamine receptors on separate populations of neurons results in potentiated immediate early gene response in D-containing neurons. Journal of Neuroscience, 15, 8167-8176.
43. Gerfen, C., & Wilson, C. (1996). The basal ganglia. In L. Swanson, A. Bjorkland, & T. Hokfelt (Eds.), Handbook of chemical neuroanatomy. Vol 12: Integrated systems of the CNS (pp. 371-468). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
44. Gluck, M. A., Shohamy, D., & Myers, C. (2002). How do people solve the "weather prediction" task?: Individual variability in strategies for probabilistic category learning. Learning and Memory, 9, 408-418.
45. Goldman-Rakic, P. (1996). Regional and cellular fractionation of working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93, 13473-13480.
46. Gotham, A., Brown, R., & Marsden, C. (1988). 'Frontal' cognitive function in patients with Parkinson's disease "on" and "off" levodopa. Brain, 111, 299-321.
47. Gottfried, J. A., O'Doherty, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Neuroscience: Encoding predictive reward value in human amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex. Science, 301, 1104-1106.
48. Granon, S., Passetti, F., Thomas, K., Dalley, J., Everitt, B., & Robbins, T. (2000). Enhanced and impaired attentional performance after infusion of D1 dopaminergic receptor agents into rat prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 1208-1215.
49. Gurney, K., Prescott, T. J., & Redgrave, P. (2001). A computational model of action selection in the basal ganglia. I. a new functional anatomy. Biological Cybernetics, 84, 401-410.
50. Hay, J., Moscovitch, M., & Levine, B. (2002). Dissociating habit and recollection: Evidence from Parkinson's disease, amnesia and focal lesion patients. Neuropsychologia, 40, 1324-1334.
51. Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organization of behavior. New York: Wiley.
52. Henik, A., Singh, J., Beckley, D., & Rafal, R. (1993). Disinhibtion of automatic word reading in Parkinson's disease. Cortex, 29, 589-599.
53. Hernandez-Lopez, S., Bargas, J., Surmeier, D., Reyes, A., & Galarraga, E. (1997). D1 receptor activation enhances evoked discharge in neostriatal medium spiny neurons by modulating an L-type Ca conductance. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 3334-3342.
54. Hernandez-Lopez, S., Tkatch, T., Perez-Garci, E., Galarraga, E., Bargas, J., Hamm, H., & Surmeier, D. (2000). D2 dopamine receptors in striatal medium spiny neurons reduce L-type Ca currents and excitability via a novel PLC1-IP-calcineurin-signaling cascade. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 8987-8995.
55. Hikosaka, O. (1989). Role of basal ganglia in initiation of voluntary movements. In M. A. Arbib & S. Amari (Eds.), Dynamic interactions in neural networks: Models and data (pp. 153-167). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
56. Hikosaka, O. (1998). Neural systems for control of voluntary action - A hypothesis. Advances in Biophysics, 35, 81-102.
57. Hollerman, J., & Schultz, W. (1998). Dopamine neurons report an error in the temporal prediction of reward during learning. Nature Neuroscience, 1, 304-309.
58. Holroyd, C. B., & Coles, M. G. H. (2002). The neural basis of human error processing: Reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity. Psychological Review, 109, 679-709.
59. Ince, E., Ciliax, B., & Levey, A. (1997). Differential expression of D and D dopamine and m4 muscarinic acteylcholine receptor proteins in identified striatonigral neurons. Synapse, 27, 257-366.
60. Jackson, G., Jackson, S., Harrison, J., Henderson, L., & Kennard, C. (1995). Serial reaction time learning and Parkinson's disease: Evidence for a procedural learning deficit. Neuropsychologia, 33, 577-593.
61. Jellinger, K. (2002). Recent developments in the pathology of Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neural Transmission Supplement, 62, 347-376.
62. Kerr, J., & Wickens, J. (2001). Dopamine D-1/D-5 receptor activation is required for long-term potentiation in the rat neostriatum in vitro. Journal of Neurophysiology, 85, 117-124.
63. Kimberg, D. Y., D'Esposito, M., & Farah, M. J. (1997). Effects of bromocriptine on human subjects depend on working memory capacity. NeuroReport, 8, 3581-3585.
64. Kish, S., Shannak, K., & Hornykiewicz, O. (1988). Uneven pattern of dopamine loss in the striatum of patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 318, 876-880.
65. Kitai, S., Sugimori, M., & Kocsis, J. (1976). Excitatory nature of dopamine in the nigro-caudate pathway. Experimental Brain Research, 24, 351-363.
66. Knowlton, B. J., Mangels, J. A., & Squire, L. R. (1996). A neostriatal habit learning system in humans. Science, 273, 1399.
67. Knowlton, B. J., Squire, L. R., & Gluck, M. A. (1994). Probabilistic category learning in amnesia. Learning and Memory, 1, 1-15.
68. Ljungberg, T., Apicella, P., & Schultz, W. (1992). Responses of monkey dopamine neurons during learning of behavioral reactions. Journal of Neurophysiology, 67, 145-163.
69. Maddox, W., Ashby, F., & Bohil, C. (2003). Delayed feedback effects on rule-based and information-integration category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.
70. Maddox, W., & Filoteo, J. (2001). Striatal contributions to category learning: Quantitative modeling of simple linear and complex non-linear rule learning in patients with Parkinson's Disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 710-727.
71. Maruyama, W., Naoi, M., & Narabayashi, H. (1996). The metabolism of L-Dopa and L-threo-3,4-dihydroxyphenylserine and their effects on monoamines in the human brain: Analysis of the intraventricular fluid from parkinsonian patients. Journal of Neurological Sciences, 139, 141-148.
72. Maura, G., Giardi, A., & Raiteri, M. (1988). Release-regulating D-2 dopamine receptors are located on striatal glutamatergic nerve terminals. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 247, 680-684.
73. Mehta, M., Swainson, R., Ogilvie, A., Sahakian, B., & Robbins, T. (2000). Improved short-term spatial memory but impaired reversal learning following the dopamine D2 agonist bromocriptine in human volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 159, 10-20.
74. Middleton, F. A., & Strick, P. L. (2000). Basal ganglia output and cognition: Evidence from anatomical, behavioral, and clinical studies. Brain and Cognition, 42, 183-200.
75. Mink, J. (1996). The basal ganglia: Focused selection and inhibition of competing motor programs. Progress in Neurobiology, 50, 381-425.
76. Monchi, O., Petrides, M., Petre, V., Worsley, K., & Dagher, A. (2001). Wisconsin card sorting revisited: Distinct neural circuits participating in different stages of the task identified by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 7733-7741.
77. Monchi, O., Taylor, J. G., & Dagher, A. (2000). A neural model of working memory processes in normal subjects, Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia for fMRI design and predictions. Neural Networks, 13, 953.
78. Nicola, S., Surmeier, J., & Malenka, R. (2000). Dopaminergic modulation of neuronal excitability in the striatum and nucleus accumbens. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23, 185-215.
79. Nieoullon, A. (2002). Dopamine and the regulation of cognition and attention. Progress in Neurobiology, 67, 53-83.
80. Nishi, A., Snyder, G., & Greengard, P. (1997). Bidirectional regulation of DARPP-32 phosphorylation by dopamine. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 8147-8155.
81. O'Donnell, P. (2003). Dopamine gating of forebrain neural ensembles. European Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 429-435.
82. O'Reilly, R. C. (1998). Six principles for biologically-based computational models of cortical cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2, 455-462.
83. O'Reilly, R. C., & Munakata, Y. (2000). Computational explorations in cognitive neuroscience: Understanding the mind by simulating the brain. Cambridge: MIT Press.
84. O'Reilly, R., & Frank, M. (submitted). Making working memory work: A computational model of learning in the frontal cortex and basal ganglia.
85. Packard, M., & Knowlton, B. (2002). Learning and memory functions of the basal ganglia. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 25, 563-593.
86. Partiot, A., Verin, M., & Dubois, B. (1996). Delayed response tasks in basal ganglia lesions in man: Further evidence for a striato-frontal cooperation in behavioural adaptation. Neuropsychologia, 34, 709.
87. Percheron, G., & Filion, M. (1991). Parallel processing in the basal ganglia: Up to a point. Trends in Neurosciences, 14, 55-56.
88. Picconi, B., Centonze, D., Hakansson, K., Bernardi, G., Greengard, P., Fisone, G., Cenci, M. A., & Calabresi, P. (2003). Loss of bidirectional striatal synaptic plasticity in L-dopa-induced dyskinesia. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 501-506.
89. Poldrack, R. A., Clark, J., PareBlagoev, E. J., Shohamy, D., Moyano, J. C., Myers, C., & Gluck, M. A. (2001). Interactive memory systems in the human brain. Nature, 414, 546-549.
90. Poldrack, R., Prabakharan, V., Seger, C., & Gabrieli, J. (1999). Striatal activation during cognitive skill learning. Neuropsychology, 13, 564-574.
91. Reber, P. J., & Squire, L. R. (1999). Intact learning of artificial grammars and intact category learning by patients with Parkinson's disease. Behavioral Neuroscience, 113, 235.
92. Remy, P., Jackson, P., & Ribeiro, M. (2000). Relationships between cognitive deficits and dopaminergic function in the striatum of Parkinson's disease patients: A PET study. Neurology, 54, A372.
93. Robertson, G., Vincent, S., & Fibiger, H. (1992). D and D dopamine receptors differentially regulate c-fos expression in striatonigral and stiratopallidal neurons. Neuroscience, 49, 285-296.
94. Rogers, R., Sahakian, B., Hodges, J., Polkey, C., Kennard, C., & Robbins, T. (1998). Dissociating executive mechanisms of task control following frontal damage and Parkinson's disease. Brain, 121, 815-842.
95. Rolls, E., Thorpe, S., Boytim, M., Szabo, I., & Perrett, D. (1984). Responses of striatal neurons in the behaving monkey: 3. Effects of iontophoretically applied dopamine on normal responsiveness. Neuroscience, 12, 1201-1212.
96. Salin, P., Hajji, M., & Kerkerian-Le Goff, L. (1996). Bilateral 6-hydroxydopamine-induced lesion of the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway reproduces the effects of unilateral lesion on substance P but not on enkephalin expression in rat basal ganglia. European Journal of Neuroscience, 8, 1746-1757.
97. Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80, 1.
98. Schultz, W. (2002). Getting formal with dopamine and reward. Neuron, 36, 241-263.
99. Schultz, W., Apicella, P., & Ljungberg, T. (1993). Responses of monkey dopamine neurons to reward and conditioned stimuli during successive steps of learning a delayed response task. Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 900-913.
100. Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275, 1593.
101. Smith, A., Neill, J., & Costall, B. (1999). The dopamine D2/D3 receptor agonist 7-OH-DPAT induces cognitive impairment in the marmoset. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 63, 201-211.
102. Soliveri, P., Brown, R., Jahanshahi, M., Caraceni, T., & Marsden, C. (1997). Learning manual pursuit tracking skills in patients with Parkinson's disease. Brain, 120, 1325-1337.
103. Stern, C., & Passingham, R. (1995). The nucleus accumbens in monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Experimental Brain Research, 106, 239-247.
104. Suri, R. E., & Schultz, W. (1999). A neural network model with dopamine-like reinforcement signal that learns a spatial delayed response task. Neuroscience, 91, 871.
105. Surmeier, D., Bargas, J., Hemmings, H., Nairn, A., & Greengard, P. (1995). Modulation of calcium currents by a D1 dopaminergic protein kinase/phosphotase cascade in rat neostriatal neurons. Neuron, 14, 385-397.
106. Surmeier, D., Song, W., & Yan, Z. (1996). Coordinated expression of dopamine receptors in neostriatal medium spiny neurons. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 6579-6591.
107. Sutton, R. S. (1988). Learning to predict by the method of temporal diferences. Machine Learning, 3, 9-44.
108. Swainson, R., Rogers, R. D., Sahakian, B., Summers, B., Polkey, C., & Robbins, T. W. (2000). Probabilistic learning and reversal deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease or frontal or temporal lobe lesions: Possible adverse effects of dopaminergic medication. Neuropsycbologia, 38, 596.
109. Taylor, N., & Taylor, J. (1999). Modelling the frontal lobes in health and disease. Proceedings of the International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks, 401-406.
110. Thomas-Ollivier, V., Reymann, J., Le Moal, S., Schueck, S., Lieury, A., & Allain, H. (1999). Procedural memory in recent-onset Parkinson's disease. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 10, 172-180.
111. Vriezen, E., & Moscovitch, M. (1990). Memory for temporal order and conditional associative-learning in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia, 28, 1283-1293.
112. Wickens, J. (1997). Basal ganglia: Structure and computations. Network: Computation in Neural Systems, 8, R77-R109.
113. Wilson, C. J. (1993). The generation of natural firing patterns in neostriatal neurons. In G. W. Arbuthnott & P. C. Emson (Eds.), Chemical signalling in the basal ganglia (progress in brain research (Vol. 99, pp. 277-297). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
114. Wilson, C., & Kawaguchi, Y. (1996). The origins of two-state spontaneous membrane potential fluctuations of neostriatal spiny neurons. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 2397-2410.
115. Woodward, T. S., Bub, D. N., & Hunter, M. A. (2002). Task switching deficits associated with Parkinson's disease reflect depleted attentional resources. Neuropsychologia, 40, 1948-1955.