Interactions between frontal cortex and basal ganglia in working memory: A computational model

Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience

Volumn 1, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 137-160

  Frank, Michael J ^a   Loughry, Bryan ^a   O'Reilly, Randall C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE;

BASAL GANGLION; COMPUTER MODEL; FRONTAL CORTEX; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); LEARNING; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NERVE CELL NETWORK; REVIEW; TASK PERFORMANCE; WORKING MEMORY; ARTICLE; ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK; FRONTAL LOBE; HUMAN; PHYSIOLOGY; RECALL;

BASAL GANGLIA; FRONTAL LOBE; HUMANS; MENTAL RECALL; NERVE NET; NEURAL NETWORKS (COMPUTER);

EID: 0035382933     PISSN: 15307026     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3758/CABN.1.2.137     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. ALEXANDER, G. E. (1987). Selective neuronal discharge in monkey putamen reflects intended direction of planned limb movements. Experimental Brain Research, 67, 623-634.
2. ALEXANDER, G. E., CRUTCHER, M., & DELONG, M. (1990). Basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: Parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, "prefrontal" and "limbic" functions. In H. Uylings, C. Van Eden, J. De Bruin, M. Corner, & M. Feenstra (Eds.), The prefrontal cortex: Its structure, function, and pathology, (pp. 119-146). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
3. ALEXANDER, G. E., DELONG, M. R., & STRICK, P. L. (1986). Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 9, 357-381.
4. AMOS, A. (2000). A computational model of information processing in the frontal cortex and basal ganglia. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 505-519.
5. BADDELEY, A. D. (1986). Working memory. New York: Oxford University Press.
6. BARTO, A. G. (1995). Adaptive critics and the basal ganglia. In J. C. Houk, J. L. Davis, & D. G. Beiser (Eds.), Models of information processing in the basal ganglia (pp. 215-232). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
7. BEISER, D. G., & HOUK, J. C. (1998). Model of cortical-basal ganglionic processing: Encoding the serial order of sensory events. Journal of Neurophysiology, 79, 3168-3188.
8. BEISER, D. G., HUA, S. E., & HOUK, J. C. (1997). Network models of the basal ganglia. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 7, 185-190.
9. BERGMAN, H., FEINGOLD, A., NINI, A., RAZ, A., SLOVIN, H., ABELES, M., & VAADIA, E. (1998). Physiological aspects of information processing in the basal ganglia of normal and parkinsonian primates. Trends in Neurosciences, 21, 32-38.
10. BERNS, G. S., & SEJNOWSKI, T. J. (1996). How the basal ganglia make decisions. In A. Damasio, H. Damasio, & Y. Christen (Eds.), Neurobiology of decision-making (pp. 101-113). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
11. BRAVER, T. S., & COHEN, J. D. (2000). On the control of control: The role of dopamine in regulating prefrontal function and working memory. In S. Monsell & J. Driver (Eds.), Attention and performance XVIII. Control of cognitive processes (pp. 713-737). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
12. BROWN, L. L., SCHNEIDER, J. S., & LIDSKY, T. I. (1997). Sensory and cognitive functions of the basal ganglia. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 7, 157-163.
13. BROWN, R. G., & MARSDEN, C. D. (1988). Internal versus external cues and the control of attention in Parkinson's disease. Brain, 111, 323-345.
14. BROWN, R. G., & MARSDEN, C. D. (1990). Cognitive function in Parkinson's disease: From description to theory. Trends in Neurosciences, 13, 21-29.
15. BULLOCK, D., & GROSSBERG, S. (1988). Neural dynamics of planned arm movements: Emergent invariants and speed-accuracy properties during trajectory formation. Psychological Review, 95, 49-90.
16. BUTTERS, N., & ROSVOLD, H. E. (1968). The effect of caudate and septal nuclei lesions on resistance to extinction and delayed-alternation performance in monkeys. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 65, 397-403.
17. CHEVALIER, G., & DENIAU, J. M. (1990). Disinhibition as a basic process in the expression of striatal functions. Trends in Neurosciences, 13, 277-280.
18. CHRISTOFF, K., & GABRIELI, J. D. E. (2000). The frontopolar cortex and human cognition: Evidence for a rostrocaudal hierarchical organization within the human prefrontal cortex. Psychobiology, 28, 168-186.
19. COHEN, J. D., BRAVER, T. S., & O'REILLY, R. C. (1996). A computational approach to prefrontal cortex, cognitive control, and schizophrenia: Recent developments and current challenges. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: Series B, 351, 1515-1527.
20. COHEN, J. D., DUNBAR, K., & MCCLELLAND, J. L. (1990). On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing model of the Stroop effect. Psychological Review, 97, 332-361.
21. COHEN, J. D., & O'REILLY, R. C. (1996). A preliminary theory of the interactions between prefrontal cortex and hippocampus that contribute to planning and prospective memory. In M. Brandimonte, G. O. Einstein, & M. A. McDaniel (Eds.), Prospective memory: Theory and applications (pp. 267-296). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
22. COHEN, J. D., PERLSTEIN, W. M., BRAVER, T. S., NYSTROM, L. E., NOLL, D. C., JONIDES, J., & SMITH, E. E. (1997). Temporal dynamics of brain activity during a working memory task. Nature, 386, 604-608.
23. CONSTANTINIDIS, C., & STEINMETZ, M. A. (1996). Neuronal activity in posterior parietal area 7a during the delay periods of a spatial memory task. Journal of Neurophysiology, 76, 1352-1355.
24. DEHAENE, S., & CHANGEUX, J. P. (1989). A simple model of prefrontal cortex function in delayed-response tasks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 244-261.
25. DEHAENE, S., & CHANGEUX, J. P. (1991). The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Theoretical analysis and modeling in a neuronal network. Cerebral Cortex, 1, 62-79.
26. DENIAU, J. M., & CHEVALIER, G. (1985). Disinhibition as a basic process in the expression of striatal functions: II. The striato-nigral influence on thalamocortical cells of the ventromedial thalamic nucleus. Brain Research, 334, 227-233.
27. DIAS, R., ROBBINS, T. W., & ROBERTS, A. C. (1997). Dissociable forms of inhibitory control within prefrontal cortex with an analog of the Wisconsin Card Sort Test: Restriction to novel situations and independence from "on-line" processing. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 9285-9297.
28. DILMORE, J. G., GUTKIN, B. G., & ERMENTROUT, G. B. (1999). Effects of dopaminergic modulation of persistent sodium currents on the excitability of prefirontal cortical neurons: A computational study. Neurocomputing, 26, 104-116.
29. DIVAC, I., ROSVOLD, H. E., & SZWARACBART, M. K. (1967). Behavioral effects of selective ablation of the caudate nucleus. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 63, 184-190.
30. DOMINEY, P. F. (1995). Complex sensory-motor sequence learning based on recurrent state representation and reinforcement learning. Biological Cybernetics, 73, 265-274.
31. DOMINEY, P. F., & ARBIB, M. A. (1992). Cortico-subcortical model for generation of spatially accurate sequential saccades. Cerebral Cortex, 2, 153-175.
32. DONCHIN, E., & COLES, M. G. (1988). Is the P300 component a manifestation of context updating? Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 11, 357-427.
33. DOUGLAS, R. J., & MARTIN, K. A. C. (1990). Neocortex. In G. M. Shepherd (Ed.), The synaptic organization of the brain (pp. 389-438). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
34. DUJARDIN, K., KRYSTKOWIAK, P., DEFEBVRE, L., BLOND, S., & DESTEE, A. (2000). A case of severe dysexecutive syndrome consecutive to chronic bilateral pallidal stimulation. Neuropsychologia, 38, 1305-1315.
35. DURSTEWITZ, D., KELC, M., & GUNTURKUN, O. (1999). A neurocomputational theory of the dopaminergic modulation of working memory functions. Journal of Neuroscience, 19, 2807-2822.
36. DURSTEWITZ, D., SEAMANS, J. K., & SEJNOWSKI, T. J. (2000a). Dopamine-mediated stabilization of delay-period activity in a network model of prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 83, 1733-1750.
37. DURSTEWITZ, D., SEAMANS, J. K., & SEJNOWSKI, T. J. (2000b). Neurocomputational models of working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 3 (Suppl.), 1184-1191.
38. ERICKSON, S. L., & LEWIS, D. A. (2000). Prefrontal cortical inputs to monkey mediodorsal thalamus. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts (p. 461). San Diego: Society for Neuroscience.
39. FELLOUS, J. M., WANG, X. J., & LISMAN, J. E. (1998). A role for NMDA-receptor channels in working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 1, 273-275.
40. Fox, C. A., & RAFOLS, J. A. (1976). The striatal efferents in the globus pallidus and in the substantia nigra. In M. D. Yahr (Ed.), The basal ganglia (pp. 37-55). New York: Raven.
41. FUNAHASHI, S., BRUCE, C. J., & GOLDMAN-RAKIC, P. S. (1989). Mnemonic coding of visual space in the monkey's dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 61, 331-349.
42. FUSTER, J. M. (1989). The prefrontal cortex: Anatomy, physiology and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe (3rd ed.). New York: Lippincott-Raven.
43. FUSTER, J. M., & ALEXANDER, G. E. (1971). Neuron activity related to short-term memory. Science, 173, 652-654.
44. GELFAND, J., GULLAPALLI, V., JOHNSON, M., RAYE, C., & HENDERSON, J. (1997). The dynamics of prefrontal cortico-thalamo-basal ganglionic loops and short term memory interference phenomena. In Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 253-258). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
45. GOBBEL, J. R. (1995). A biophysically-based model of the neostriatum as a dynamically reconfigurable network. In M. Boden & L.-E. Niklasson (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Swedish Conference on Connectionism. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
46. GOBBEL, J. R. (1997). The role of the neostriatum in the execution of action sequences. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Diego.
47. GOLDMAN, P. S., & ROSVOLD, H. E. (1972). The effects of selective caudate lesions in infant and juvenile Rhesus monkeys. Brain Research, 43, 53-66.
48. GOLDMAN-RAKIC, P. S. (1987). Circuitry of primate prefrontal cortex and regulation of behavior by representational memory. In F. Plum & V. Mountcastle (Eds.), Handbook of physiology: The nervous system (Vol. 5, pp. 373-417). Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society.
49. GOLDMAN-RAKIC, P. S., & FRIEDMAN, H. R. (1991). The circuitry of working memory revealed by anatomy and metabolic imaging. In H. S. Levin, H. M. Eisenberg, & A. L. Benton (Eds.), Frontal lobe function and dysfunction (pp. 72-91). New York: Oxford University Press.
50. GORELOVA, N. A., & YANG, C. R. (2000). Dopamine D1/D5 receptor activation modulates a persistent sodium current in rat prefrontal cortical neurons in vitro. Journal of Neurophysiology, 84, 75-87.
51. GRAYBIEL, A. M., & KIMURA, M. (1995). Adaptive neural networks in the basal ganglia. In J. C. Houk, J. L. Davis, & D. G. Beiser (Eds.), Models of information processing in the basal ganglia (pp. 103-116). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
52. GUIGON, E., DORIZZI, B., BURNOD, Y., & SCHULTZ, W. (1995). Neural correlates of learning in the prefrontal cortex of the monkey: A predictive model. Cerebral Cortex, 2, 135-147.
53. HIKOSAKA, O. (1989). Role of basal ganglia in initiation of voluntary movements. In M. A. Arbib & S. Amari (Eds.), Dynamic interactions in neural networks: Models and data (pp. 153-167). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
54. HOCHREITER, S., & SCHMIDHUBER, J. (1997). Long short-term memory. Neural Computation, 9, 1735-1780.
55. HOSHI, E., SHIMA, K., & TANJI, J. (2000). Neuronal activity in the primate prefrontal cortex in the process of motor selection based on two behavioral rules. Journal of Neurophysiology, 83, 2355-2373.
56. HOUK, J. C., ADAMS, J. L., & BARTO, A. G. (1995). A model of how the basal ganglia generate and use neural signals that predict reinforcement. In J. C. Houk, J. L. Davis, & D. G. Beiser (Eds.), Models of information processing in the basal ganglia (pp. 233-248). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
57. HOUK, J. C., & WISE, S. P. (1995). Distributed modular architectures linking basal ganglia, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex: Their role in planning and controlling action. Cerebral Cortex, 5, 95-110.
58. JACKSON, S., & HOUGHTON. G. (1995). Sensorimotor selection and the basal ganglia: A neural network model. In J. C. Houk, J. L. Davis, & D. G. Beiser (Eds.), Models of information processing in the basal ganglia (pp. 337-368). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
59. JAEGER, D., KITA. H., & WILSON, C. J. (1994). Surround inhibition among projection neurons is weak or nonexistent in the rat neostriatum. Journal of Neurophysiology, 72, 2555-2558.
60. KOECHLIN, E., BASSO, G., PIETRINI, P., PANZER, S., & GRAFMAN, J. (1999). The role of the anterior prefrontal cortex in human cognition. Nature, 399, 148-151.
61. KROPOTOV, J. D., & ETLINGER, S. C. (1999). Selection of actions in the basal ganglia-thalamocoritcal circuits: Review and model. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 31, 197-217.
62. KUBOTA, K., & NIKI, H. (1971). Prefrontal cortical unit activity and delayed alternation performance in monkeys. Journal of Neurophysiology, 34, 337-347.
63. LANGE, H., THORNER, G., & HOPF, A. (1976). Morphometric-statistical structure analysis of human striatum, pallidum, and nucleus subthalamicus: III. Nucleus subthalamicus. Journal für Hirnforschung, 17, 31-41.
64. LEVITT, J. B., LEWIS, D. A., YOSHIOKA, T., & LUND, J. S. (1993). Topography of pyramidal neuron intrinsic connections in macaque monkey prefrontal cortex (areas 9 & 46). Journal of Comparative Neurology, 338, 360-376.
65. LEWIS, B. L., & O'DONNELL, P. (2000). Ventral tegmental area afferents to the prefrontal cortex maintain membrane potential "up" states in pyramidal neurons via D1 dopamine receptors. Cerebral Cortex, 10, 1168-1175.
66. MATSUMOTO, N., HANAKAWA, T., MAKI, S., GRAYBIEL, A. M., & KIMURA, M. (1999). Role of nigrostriatal dopamine system in learning to perform sequential motor tasks in a predictive manner. Journal of Neurophysiology, 82, 978-998.
67. MCCLELLAND, J. L., MCNAUGHTON, B. L., & O'REILLY, R. C. (1995). Why there are complementary learning systems in the hippocampus and neocortex: Insights from the successes and failures of connectionist models of learning and memory. Psychological Review, 102, 419-457.
68. MCFARLAND, N. R., & HABER, S. N. (2000). Convergent inputs from thalamic motor nuclei and frontal cortical areas to the dorsal striatum in the primate. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 3798-3813.
69. MIDDLETON, F. A., & STRICK, P. L. (2000a). Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: Motor and cognitive circuits. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 236-250.
70. MIDDLETON, F. A., & STRICK, P. L. (2000b). Basal ganglia output and cognition: Evidence from anatomical, behavioral, and clinical studies. Brain & Cognition, 42, 183-200.
71. MILLER, E. K., ERICKSON, C. A., & DESIMONE, R. (1996). Neural mechanisms of visual working memory in prefontal cortex of the macaque. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 5154-5167.
72. MIYAKE, A., & SHAH, P. (Eds.) (1999). Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. New York: Cambridge University Press.
73. MIYASHITA, Y., & CHANG, H. S. (1988). Neuronal correlate of pictorial short-term memory in the primate temporal cortex. Nature, 331, 68-70.
74. MONTAGUE, P. R., DAYAN, P., & SEJNOWSKI, T. J. (1996). A framework for mesencephalic dopamine systems based on predictive Hebbian learning. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 1936-1947.
75. MOODY, S. L., WISE, S. P., DI PELLEGRINO, G., & ZIPSER, D. (1998). A model that accounts for activity in primate frontal cortex during a delayed matching-to-sample task. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 399-410.
76. MUNAKATA, Y. (1998). Infant perseveration and implications for object permanence theories: A PDP model of the A-not-B task. Developmental Science, 1, 161-184.
77. NEAFSEY, E. J., HULL, C. D., & BUCHWALD, N. A. (1978). Preparation for movement in the cat: I. Unit activity in the cerebral cortex. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 44, 714-723.
78. NORMAN, D., & SHALLICE, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In R. Davidson, G. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 4, pp. 1-18). New York: Plenum.
79. NYSTROM, L. E., BRAVER, T. S., SABB, F. W., DELGADO, M. R., NOLL, D. C., & COHEN, J. D. (2000). Working memory for letters, shapes, and locations: fMRI evidence against stimulus-based regional organization in human prefrontal cortex. NeuroImage, 11, 424-446.
80. O'REILLY, R. C. (1998). Six principles for biologically-based computational models of cortical cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2, 455-462.
81. O'REILLY, R. C., BRAVER, T. S., & COHEN, J. D. (1999). A biologically based computational model of working memory. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 375-411). New York: Cambridge University Press.
82. O'REILLY, R. C., & MCCLELLAND, J. L. (1994). Hippocampal conjunctive encoding, storage, and recall: Avoiding a tradeoff. Hippocampus, 4, 661-682.
83. O'REILLY, R. C., & MUNAKATA, Y. (2000). Computational explorations in cognitive neuroscience: Understanding the mind by simulating the brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
84. O'REILLY, R. C., NOELLE, D., BRAVER, T. S., & COHEN, J. D. (2001). Prefrontal cortex and dynamic categorization tasks: Representational organization and neuromodulatory control. Manuscript submitted for publication.
85. O'REILLY, R. C., & RUDY, J. W. (2000). Computational principles of learning in the neocortex and hippocampus. Hippocampus, 10, 389-397.
86. O'REILLY, R. C., & RUDY, J. W. (2001). Conjunctive representations in learning and memory: Principles of cortical and hippocampal function. Psychological Review, 108, 311-345.
87. OWEN, A. M., DOYON, J., DAGHER, A., SADIKOT, A., & EVANS, A. C. (1998). Abnormal basal ganglia outflow in Parkinson's disease identified with PET: Implications for higher cortical functions. Brain, 121, 949-965.
88. OWEN, A. M., ROBERTS, A. C., HODGES, J. R., SUMMERS, B. A., POLKEY, C. E., & ROBBINS, T. W. (1993). Contrasting mechanisms of impaired attentional set-shifting in patients with frontal lobe damage or Parkinson's disease. Brain, 116, 1159-1175.
89. PASSINGHAM, R. E. (1993). The frontal lobes and voluntary action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
90. PETRIDES, M. (1994). Frontal lobes and working memory: Evidence from investigations of the effects of cortical excisions in nonhuman primates. In F. Boller & J. Grafman (Eds.), Handbook of neuropsychology (Vol. 9, pp. 59-82). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
91. PUCAK, M. L., LEVITT, J. B., LUND, J. S., & LEWIS, D. A. (1996). Patterns of intrinsic and associational circuitry in monkey prefrontal cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 376, 614-630.
92. RAO, S. C., RAINER, G., & MILLER, E. K. (1997, May). Integration of what and where in the primate prefrontal cortex. Science, 276, 821-824.
93. RAO, S. G., WILLIAMS, G. V., & GOLDMAN-RAKIC, P. S. (1999). Isodirectional tuning of adjacent interneurons and pyramidal cells during working memory: Evidence for microcolumnar organization in PFC. Journal of Neurophysiology, 81, 1903-1916.
94. ROBBINS, T. W., SHALLICE, T., BURGESS, P. W., JAMES, M., ROGERS, R. D., WARBURTON, E., & WISE, R. S. J. (1995). Selective impairments in self-ordered working memory in a patient with a unilateral striatal lesion. Neurocase, 1, 217-230.
95. SCHNEIDER, J. S. (1987). Basal ganglia-motor influences: Role of sensory gating. In J. S. Schneider & T. I. Lidsky (Eds.), Basal ganglia and behavior: Sensory aspects of motor functioning (pp. 103-121). Toronto: Hans Huber.
96. SCHULTZ, W., APICELLA, P., & LJUNGBERG, T. (1993). Responses of monkey dopamine neurons to reward and conditioned stimuli during successive steps of learning a delayed response task. Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 900-913.
97. SCHULTZ, W., APICELLA, P., ROMO, R., & SCARNATI, E. (1995). Context-dependent activity in primate striatum reflecting past and future behavioral events. In J. C. Houk, J. L. Davis, & D. G. Beiser (Eds.), Models of information processing in the basal ganglia (pp. 11-28). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
98. SCHULTZ, W., DAYAN, P., & MONTAGUE, P. R. (1997, March). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275, 1593-1599.
99. SCHULTZ, W., ROMO, R., LJUNGBERG, T., MIRENOWICZ, J., HOLLERMAN, J. R., & DICKINSON, A. (1995). Reward-related signals carried by dopamine neurons. In J. C. Houk, J. L. Davis, & D. G. Beiser (Eds.), Models of information processing in the basal ganglia (pp. 233-248). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
100. SEUNG, H. S. (1998). Continuous attractors and oculomotor control. Neural Networks, 11, 1253-1258.
101. SHALLICE, T. (1988). From neuropsychology to mental structure. New York: Cambridge University Press.
102. SHIMA, K., & TANJI, J. (1998). Both supplementary and presupplementary motor areas are crucial for the temporal organization of multiple movements. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80, 3247-3260.
103. SMITH, E. E., & JONIDES, J. (1997). Working memory: A view from neuroimaging. Cognitive Psychology, 33, 5-42.
104. SURMEIER, D. J., & KITAI, S. T. (1999). D1 and D2 modulation of sodium and potassium currents in rat neostriatal neurons. Progress in Brain Research, 99, 309-324.
105. TANAKA, S., & OKADA, S. (1999). Functional prefrontal cortical circuitry for visuospatial working memory formation: A computational model. Neurocomputing, 26, 891-899.
106. TAYLOR, J. G., & TAYLOR, N. R. (2000). Analysis of recurrent cortico-basal ganglia-thalamic loops for working memory. Biological Cybernetics, 82, 415-432.
107. TREPANIER, L. L., SAINT-CYR, J. A., LOZANO, A. M., & LANG, A. E. (1998). Neuropsychological consequences of posteroventral pallidotomy for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 51, 207-215.
108. TSUNG, F.-S., & COTTRELL, G. W. (1993). Learning simple arithmetic procedures. Connection Science, 5, 37-58.
109. WANG, X.-J. (1999). Synaptic basis of cortical persistent activity: The importance of NMDA receptors to working memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 19, 9587-9603.
110. WATANABE, M. (1992). Frontal units of the monkey coding the associative significance of visual and auditory stimuli. Experimental Brain Research, 89, 233-247.
111. WICKENS, J. [R.] (1993). A theory of the striatum. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
112. WICKENS, J. [R.] (1997). Basal ganglia: Structure and computations. Network: Computation in Neural Systems, 8, R77-R109.
113. WICKENS, J. R., KOTTER, R., & ALEXANDER, M. E. (1995). Effects of local connectivity on striatal function: Simulation and analysis of a model. Synapse, 20, 281-298.
114. WILSON, C. J. (1993). The generation of natural firing patterns in neostriatal neurons. In G. W. Arbuthnott & P. C. Emson (Eds.), Chemical signalling in the basal ganglia (Progress in Brain Research, Vol. 99, pp. 277-297). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
115. WILSON, F. A. W., SCALAIDHE, S. P. O., & GOLDMAN-RAKIC, P. S. (1993). Dissociation of object and spatial processing domains in primate prefrontal cortex. Science, 260, 1955-1957.
116. WISE, S. P. (1985). The primate premotor cortex: Past, present, and preparatory. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 8, 1-19.
117. WISE, S. P., MURRAY, E. A., & GERFEN, C. R. (1996). The frontal cortex-basal ganglia system in primates. Critical Reviews in Neurobiology, 10, 317-356.
118. ZIPSER, D. (1991). Recurrent network model of the neural mechanism of short-term active memory. Neural Computation, 3, 179-193.
119. ZIPSER, D., KEHOE, B., LITTLEWORT, G., & FUSTER, J. (1993). A spiking network model of short-term active memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 3406-3420.