Impact of Functional Genomics and Proteomics on Radionuclide Imaging

Seminars in Nuclear Medicine

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 4-22

  Haberkorn, Uwe ^a   Altmann, Annette ^b   Mier, Walter ^b   Eisenhut, Michael ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HEIDELBERG   (Germany)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

6 METHYLPURINE; 6 THIOXANTHINE; 7 ETHYL 10 HYDROXYCAMPTOTHECIN; ANTIBODY; ANTIGEN; BENZOIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CARRIER PROTEIN; COMPLEMENTARY DNA; CYANIDE; DNA; DOXORUBICIN; ENZYME; EPIRUBICIN; ETOPOSIDE; FLUOROURACIL; IODINE 131; ISOTOPE; LIGAND; MELPHALAN; MESSENGER RNA; MITOMYCIN; OLIGONUCLEOTIDE; OXYGEN RADICAL; PALYTOXIN; RADIOISOTOPE; RECEPTOR; TRACER; UNINDEXED DRUG; WATER; YTTRIUM 90;

BIOCHEMISTRY; BIOENGINEERING; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DNA SEQUENCE; DNA STRAND BREAKAGE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; ENZYME SUBSTRATE; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE FUNCTION; GENE LOCUS; GENE SEQUENCE; GENE THERAPY; GENOMICS; HUMAN; HUMAN GENOME; ISOTOPE LABELING; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MEDICINE; PHARMACOGENOMICS; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PROTEIN PROTEIN INTERACTION; PROTEOMICS; REPORTER GENE; REVIEW; SCINTISCANNING; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; SUICIDE GENE;

EID: 0346096666     PISSN: 00012998     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2003.09.003     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. Zamecnik PC, Stephenson ML: Inhibition of Rous sarcoma virus replication and cell transformation by a specific oligode-oxynucleotide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 75:280-285, 1978
2. Mukhopadhyay T, Tainsky M, Cavender AC, et al: Specific inhibition of K-ras expression and tumorigenicity of lung cancer cells by antisense RNA. Cancer Res 51:1744-1748, 1991
3. Hannon GJ: RNA interference. Nature 418:244-251, 2002
4. Zeng Y, Wagner EJ, Cullen BR, et al: Both natural and designed micro RNAs can inhibit the expression of cognate mRNAs when expressed in human cells. Mol Cell 9:1327-1333, 2002
5. Sui G, Soohoo C, Affarel B, et al: A DNA vector-based RNAi technology to suppress gene expression in mammalian cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:5515-5520, 2002
6. Moss EG: Silencing unhealthy alleles naturally. Trends Biotechnol 21:185-187, 2003
7. Claverie JM: What if there are only 30,000 human genes? Science 291:1255-1257, 2001
8. Woolf TM, Melton DA, Jennings CGB: Specificity of antisense oligonucleotides in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89:7305-7309, 1992
9. Iversen PL, Zhu S, Meyer A, et al: Cellular uptake and subcellular distribution of phosphorothioate oligonucleotides into cultured cells. Antisense Res Dev 2:211-222, 1992
10. Loke SL, Stein CA, Zhang XH, et al: Characterization of oligonucleotide transport into living cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86:3474-3478, 1989
11. Dewanjee MK, Ghafouripour AK, Kapadvanjwala M, et al: Noninvasive imaging of c-myc oncogene messenger RNA with indium-111-antisense probes in a mammary tumor-bearing mouse model. J Nucl Med 35:1054-1063, 1994
12. Cammilleri S, Sangrajrang S, Perdereau B, et al: Biodistribution of iodine-125 tyramine transforming growth factor alpha antisense oligonucleotide in athymic mice with a human mammary tumor xenograft following intratumoral injection. Eur J Nucl Med 23:448-452, 1996
13. 11C-labeled phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotide. Neuroreport 10:2971-2974, 1999
14. Shi N, Boado RJ, Pardridge WM: Antisense imaging of gene expression in the brain in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97:14709-14714, 2000
15. Urbain JL, Shore SK, Vekemans MC, et al: Scintigraphic imaging of oncogenes with antisense probes: Does it make sense? Eur J Nucl Med 22:499-504, 1995
16. Tavitian B, Terrazzino S, Kühnast B, et al: In vivo imaging of oligonucleotides with positron emission tomography. Nature Med 4:467-471, 1998
17. Watanabe N, Sawai H, Endo K, et al: Labeling of phosphorothioate antisense oligonucleotides with yttrium-90. Nucl Med Biol 26:239-243, 1999
18. Anderson L, Seilhamer J: A comparison of selected mRNA and protein abundances in human liver. Electrophoresis 18:533-537, 1977
19. Futcher B, Latter GI, Monardo P, et al: A sampling of the yeast proteome. Mol Cell Biol 19:7357-7368, 1999
20. Gygi SP, Rist B, Gerber SA, et al: Quantitative analysis of complex protein mixtures using isotope-coded affinity tags. Nat Biotechnol 17:994-999, 1999
21. Pradet-Balade B, Boulme F, Beug H, et al: Translation control: Bridging the gap between genomics and proteomics? Trends Biochem Sci 26:225-229, 2001
22. Claverie JM: Computational methods for the identification of differential and coordinated gene expression. Hum Mol Genet 8:1821-1832, 1999
23. Werner T: Models for prediction and recognition of eukaryotic promoters. Mamm Genome 10:168-175, 1999
24. Wouters FS, Verveer PJ, Bastiaens PIH: Imaging biochemistry inside cells. Trends Cell Biol 11:203-211, 2001
25. 18F]-FHPG) in vitro and in vivo as a probe for PET imaging of gene incorporation and expression in tumors. Nucl Med Biol 26:371-376, 1999
26. 18F]FHPG as PET tracers for herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase enzyme activity and human cytomegalovirus infections. Nucl Med Biol 27:113-119, 2000
27. Gambhir SS, Barrio JR, Phelps ME, et al: Imaging adenoviral-directed reporter gene expression in living animals with positron emission tomography. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96:2333-2338, 1999
28. Haberkorn U, Altmann A, Morr I, et al: Gene therapy with Herpes Simplex Virus thymidine kinase in hepatoma cells: Uptake of specific substrates. J Nucl Med 38:287-294, 1997
29. Haberkorn U, Khazaie K, Morr I, et al: Ganciclovir uptake in human mammary carcinoma cells expressing Herpes Simplex Virus thymidine kinase. Nucl Med Biol 25:367-373, 1998
30. Haberkorn U, Altmann A: Imaging methods in gene therapy of cancer. Current Gene Ther 1:163-182, 2001
31. Haubner R, Avril N, Hantzopoulos PA, et al: In vivo imaging of herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase gene expression: early kinetics of radiolabelled FIAU. Eur J Nucl Med 27:283-291, 2000
32. Hospers GA, Calogero A, van Waarde A, et al: Monitoring of herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase enzyme activity using positron emission tomography. Cancer Res 60:1488-1491, 2000
33. 18F)FHPG. Eur J Nucl Med 28:5-12, 2001
34. Jacobs A, Voges J, Reszka R, et al: Positron-emission tomography of vector-mediated gene expression in gene therapy for gliomas. Lancet 358:727-729, 2001
35. 18F)fluoro-3-hydroxy-2-propoxy)methyl)guanine. J Label Compd Radiopharm 37:193-195, 1995
36. Saito Y, Price RW, Rottenberg DA, et al: Quantitative autoradiographic mapping of herpes simplex virus encephalitis with radiolabeled antiviral drug. Science 217:1151-1153, 1982
37. Tjuvajev JG, Stockhammer G, Desai R, et al: Imaging the expression of transfected genes in vivo. Cancer Res 55:6126-6132, 1995
38. Tjuvajev JG, Avril N, Oku T, et al: Imaging herpes virus thymidine kinase gene transfer and expression by positron emission tomography. Cancer Res 58:4333-4341, 1998
39. Wiebe LI, Knaus EE, Morin KW, et al: Radiolabelled pyrimidine nucleosides to monitor the expression of HSV-1 thymidine kinase in gene therapy. Nucleosides Nucleotides 18:1065-1066, 1999
40. Gambhir SS, Bauer E, Black ME, et al: A mutant herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase reporter gene shows improved sensitivity for imaging reporter gene expression with positron emission tomography. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97:2785-2790, 2000
41. MacLaren DC, Gambhir SS, Satyamurthy N, et al: Repetitive non-invasive imaging of the dopamine D2 receptor as a reporter gene in living animals. Gene Ther 6:785-791, 1999
42. 188Re. J Nucl Med 41:887-895, 2000
43. Raben D, Buchsbaum DJ, Khazaeli MB, et al: Enhancement of radiolabeled antibody binding and tumor localization through adenoviral transduction of the human carcinoembryonic antigen gene. Gene Ther 3:567-580, 1996
44. Bogdanov A, Simonova M, Weissleder R: Design of metal-binding green fluorescent protein variants. Biochim Biophys Acta 1397:56-64, 1998
45. Simonova M, Weissleder R, Sergeyev N, et al: Targeting of green fluorescent protein expression to the cell surface. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 62;638-642, 1999
46. Boland A, Magnon C, Filetti S, et al: Transposition of the thyroid iodide uptake and organification system in nonthyroid tumor cells by adenoviral vector-mediated gene transfers. Thyroid 12:19-26, 2002
47. Carlin S, Cunningham SH, Boyd M, et al: Experimental targeted radioiodide therapy following transfection of the sodium iodide symporter gene: Effect on clonogenicity in both two-and three-dimensional models. Cancer Gene Ther 7:1529-1536, 2000
48. Cho JY, Xing S, Liu X, et al: Expression and activity of human Na+/I-symporter in human glioma cells by adenovirus-mediated gene delivery. Gene Ther 7:740-749, 2000
49. Haberkorn U, Henze M, Altmann A, et al: Transfer of the human sodium iodide symporter gene enhances iodide uptake in hepatoma cells. J Nucl Med 42:317-325, 2001
50. Haberkorn U, Kinscherf R, Kissel M, et al: Enhanced iodide transport after transfer of the human sodium iodide symporter gene is associated with lack of retention and low absorbed dose. Gene Ther 10:774-780, 2003
51. La Perle KM, Shen D, Buckwalter TL, et al: In vivo expression and function of the sodium iodide symporter following gene transfer in the MATLyLu rat model of metastatic prostate cancer. Prostate 50:170-178, 2002
52. Mandell RB, Mandell LZ, Link CJ: Radioisotope concentrator gene therapy using the sodium/iodide symporter gene. Cancer Res 59:661-668, 1999
53. Nakamoto Y, Saga T, Misaki T, et al: Establishment and characterization of a breast cancer cell line expressing Na+/I-symporters for radioiodide concentrator gene therapy. J Nucl Med 41:1898-1904, 2000
54. 131J therapy in transplanted undifferentiated thyroid cancer cells expressing the Na+/I-symporter gene. Endocrinology 138:4493-4496, 1997
55. Sieger S, Jiang S, SchOnsiegel F, et al: Tumour specific activation of the sodium/iodide symporter gene under control of the glucose transporter gene 1 promoter (GTI-1.3). Eur J Nucl Med 30:748-756, 2003
56. Smit JW, Shroder-van der Elst JP, Karperien M, et al: Reestablishment of in vitro and in vivo iodide uptake by transfection of the human sodium iodide symporter (hNIS) in a hNIS defective human thyroid carcinoma cell line. Thyroid 10:939-943, 2000
57. 131I therapy in a xenotransplanted human sodium-iodide symporter-transfected human follicular thyroid carcinoma cell line. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:1247-1253, 2002
58. Spitzweg C, O'Connor MK, Bergert ER, et al: Treatment of prostate cancer by radioiodine therapy after tissue-specific expression of the sodium iodide symporter. Cancer Res 60:6526-6530, 2000
59. Spitzweg C, Dietz AB, O'Connor MK, et al: In vivo sodium iodide symporter gene therapy of prostate cancer. Gene Ther 8:1524-1531, 2001
60. Haberkorn U, Altmann A, Eisenhut M: Functional genomics and proteomics - The role of nuclear medicine. Eur J Nuc Med 29:115-132, 2002
61. Oliver FJ, Collins MKL, Lopez-Rivas A: Overexpression of a heterologous thymidine kinase delays apoptosis induced by factor deprivation and inhibitors of deoxynucleotide metabolism. J Biol Chem 272:10624-10630, 1997
62. Liang Q, Satyamurthy N, Barrio JR, et al: Noninvasive and quantitative imaging, in living animals, of a mutant dopamine D2 receptor reporter gene in which ligand binding is uncoupled from signal transduction. Gene Ther 19:1490-1498, 2001
63. Tucker CL, Gera JF, Uetz P: Towards an understanding of complex protein networks. Trends Cell Biol 11:102-106, 2001
64. Marcotte EM, Pellegrini M, Ng HL, et al: Detecting protein function and protein-protein interactions from genome sequences. Science 285:751-753, 1999
65. Wouters FS, Verveer PJ, Bastiaens PIH: Imaging biochemistry inside cells. Trends Cell Biol 11:203-211, 2001
66. Ray P, Pimenta H, Paulmurugan R, et al: Noninvasive quantitative imaging of protein-protein interactions in living subjects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:3105-3110, 2002
67. Wu JC, Sundaresan G, Iyer M, et al: Noninvasive optical imaging of firefly luciferase reporter gene expression in skeletal muscles of living mice. Mol Ther 4:297-306, 2001
68. Luker GD, Sharma V, Pica CM, et al: Noninvasive imaging of protein-protein interactions in living animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:6961-6966, 2002
69. Rossi FMV, Blakely BT, Blau HM: Interaction blues: Protein interactions monitored in live mammalian cells by β-galactosidase complementation. Trends Cell Biol 10:119-122, 2000
70. Mills KV, Paulus H: Reversible inhibition of protein splicing by zinc ion. J Biol Chem 276:10832-10838, 2001
71. Gimble FS: Putting protein splicing to work. Chem Biol 5:R251-R256, 1998
72. Paulmurugan R, Umezawa Y, Gambhir SS: Noninvasive imaging of protein-protein interactions in living subjects by using reporter protein complementation and reconstitution strategies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:15608-15613, 2002
73. Werner T: Promoters can contribute to the elucidation of protein function. Trends Biotechnol 21:9-13, 2003
74. Haberkorn U, Altmann A: Noninvasive imaging of protein-protein interaction in living organisms. Trends Biotechnol 21:241-243, 2003
75. Jiang S, Altmann A, Grimm D, et al: Tissue-specific gene expression in medullary thyroid carcinoma cells employing calcitonin regulatory elements and AAV vectors. Cancer Gene Ther 8:469-472, 2001
76. Iyer M, Wu L, Carey M, et al: Two-step transcriptional amplification as a method for imaging reporter gene expression using weak promoters. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:14595-14600, 2001
77. Harrison LH Jr, Schwarzenberger PO, Byrne PS, et al: Gene-modified PA1-STK cells home to tumor sites in patients with malignant pleural mesothelioma. Ann Thorac Surg 70:407-411, 2000
78. 111Indium labeling of hepatocytes for analysis of short-term biodistribution of transplanted cells. Hepatology 19:750-757, 1994
79. Josephson L, Tung CH, Moore A, et al: High-efficiency intracellular magnetic labeling with novel supermagnetic-tat peptide conjugates. Bioconjugate Chem 10:186-191, 1999
80. Schellingerhout D, Bogdanov A, Marecos E, et al: Mapping the in vivo distribution of herpes simplex virions. Hum Gene Ther 9:1543-1549, 1998
81. 99mTc-labeled adenovirus knob (sero-type 5). Gene Ther 5:798-808, 1998
82. Altmann A, Haberkorn U: Assessment of gene transfer using imaging methodology. Curr Genomics 4:167-184, 2003
83. Germann C, Shields AF, Grierson JR, et al: 5-Fluoro-1-(2′ -deoxy-2′-fluoro-β-D-ribofuranosyl)uracil trapping in Morris hepatoma cells expressing the Herpes Simplex Virus thymidine kinase gene. J Nucl Med 39:1418-1423, 1998
84. Mahony WB, Domin BA, McConnell RT, et al: Acyclovir transport into human erythrocytes. J Biol Chem 263:9285-9291, 1988
85. Gati WP, Misra HK, Knaus EE, et al: Structural modifications at the 2′ and 3′ positions of some pyrimidine nucleosides as determinants of their interaction with the mouse erythrocyte nucleoside transporter. Biochem Pharmacol 33:3325-3331, 1984
86. 3H-5-fluorocytosine. J Nucl Med 37:87-94, 1996
87. Haberkorn U: Monitoring of gene transfer for cancer therapy with radioactive isotopes. Ann Nucl Med 13:369-377, 1999
88. Hamstra DA, Rice DJ, Fahmy S, et al: Enzyme/prodrug therapy for head and neck cancer using a catalytically superior cytosine deaminase. Hum Gene Ther 10:1993-2003, 1999
89. Stegman LD, Rehemtulla A, Beattie B, et al: Noninvasive quantitation of cytosine deaminase transgene expression in human tumor xenografts with in vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96:9821-9826, 1999
90. Marcocci C, Cohen JL, Grollman EF: Effect of actinomycin D on iodide transport in FRTL-5 thyroid cells. Endocrinology 115:2123-2132, 1984
91. Weiss SJ, Philp NJ, Grollman EF: Iodide transport in a continuous line of cultured cells from rat thyroid. Endocrinology 114:1090-1098, 1984
92. Paire A, Bernier-Valentin F, Selmi-Ruby S, et al: Characterization of the rat thyroid iodide transporter using anti-peptide antibodies. J Biol Chem 272:18245-18249, 1997
93. Nakamura Y, Ohtaki S, Yamazaki I: Molecular mechanism of iodide transport by thyroid plasmalemmal vesicles: Cooperative sodium activation and asymmetrical affinities for the ions on the outside and inside of the vesicles. J Biochem 104:544-549, 1988
94. Nakamura Y, Kotani T, Ohtaki S: Transcellular iodide transport and iodination on the apical plasma membrane by monolayer porcine thyroid cells cultured on collagen-coated fibers. J Endocrin 126:275-281, 1990
95. Smanik PA, Liu Q, Furminger TL, et al: Cloning of the human sodium iodide symporter. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 226:339-345, 1996
96. Dai G, Levy O, Carrasco N: Cloning and characterization of the thyroid iodide transporter. Nature 379:458-460, 1996
97. Huang M, Batra RK, Kogai T, et al: Ectopic expression of the thyroperoxidase gene augments radioiodide uptake and retention mediated by the sodium iodide symporter in non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Gene Ther 8:612-618, 2001
98. Berman M, Hoff E, Barandes M: Iodine kinetics in man: A model. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 28:1-14, 1968
99. Maxon HR, Thomas SR, Hertzberg VS, et al: Relation between effective radiation dose and outcome of radioiodine therapy for thyroid cancer. N Engl J Med 309:937-941, 1983
100. Haberkorn U, Altmann A, Jiang S, et al: Iodide uptake in human anaplastic thyroid carcinoma cells after transfer of the human thyroid peroxidase gene. Eur J Nucl Med 28:633-638, 2001
101. 131I therapy of metastatic, well differentiated thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:912-916, 1999
102. Urabe M, Hershman JM, Pang XP, et al: Effect of lithium on function and growth of thyroid cells in vitro. Endocrinology 129:807-814, 1991
103. Lazarus JH: The effects of lithium therapy on thyroid and thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Thyroid 8:909-913, 1998
104. 131I in thyroid gland of man and rat. Life Sci 7:1257-1264, 1968
105. Temple R, Berman M, Robbins J, et al: The use of lithium in the treatment of thyrotoxicosis. J Clin Invest 51:2746-2756, 1972
106. Gershengorn MC, Izumi M, Robbins J: Use of lithium as an adjunct to radioiodine therapy of thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 42:105-111, 1976
107. Dadachova E, Bouzahzah B, Zuckier LS, et al: Rhenium-188 as an alternative to iodine-131 for treatment of breast tumors expressing the sodium/iodide symporter (NIS). Nucl Med Biol 29:13-18, 2002
108. Petrich T, Helmeke HJ, Meyer GJ, et al: Establishment of radioactive astatine and iodine uptake in cancer cell lines expressing the human sodium iodide symporter. Eur J Nucl Med 29:842-854, 2002
109. Smets LA, Loesberg C, Janssen M, et al: Active uptake and extravesicular storage of m-iodobenzyl guanidine in human neuroblastoma. Cancer Res 49:2941-2944, 1989
110. Wafelman AR, Hoefnagel CA, Maes RAA, et al: Radioiodinated metaiodo-benzylguanidine: A review of its distribution and pharmacokinetics, drug interactions, cytotoxicity and dosimetry. Eur J Nucl Med 21:545-559, 1994
111. 131I-labelled meta-iodobenzylguanidine in neuroblastoma cell lines by means of reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction. Br J Cancer 70:97-101, 1994
112. Glowniak JV, Kilty JE, Amara SG, et al: Evaluation of metaiodobenzylguanidine uptake by the norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin transporters. J Nucl Med 34:1140-1146, 1993
113. Lode HN, Bruchelt G, Seitz G, et al: Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis of monoamine transporters in neuroblastoma cell lines: Correlations to meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) uptake and tyrosine hydroxylase gene expression. Eur J Cancer 31A:586-590, 1995
114. Pacholczyk T, Blakely RD, Amara SG: Expression cloning of a cocaine- and antidepressant-sensitive human nor-adrenaline transporter. Nature 350:350-354, 1991
115. 131I meta-iodobenzylguanidine. Gene Ther 6:1147-1152, 1999
116. Altmann A, Kissel M, Zitzmann S, et al: Increased MIBG uptake after transfer of the human norepinephrine transporter gene in rat hepatoma. J Nucl Med 44:973-980, 2003
117. Bomanji J, Levison DA, Flatman WD, et al: Uptake of iodine-123 MIBG by pheochromocytomas, paragangliomas, and neuroblastomas: A histopathological comparison. J Nucl Med 28:973-978, 1987
118. Ryu DDY, Nam DH: Recent progress in biomolecular engineering. Biotechnol Prog 16:2-16, 2000
119. Anderson NL, Anderson NG: Proteome and proteomics: New technologies, new concepts, and new words. Electrophoresis 19:1853-1861, 1998
120. Ohkubo N, Mitsuda N, Tamatani M, et al: Apolipoprotein E4 stimulates cAMP response element-binding protein transcriptional activity through the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway. J Biol Chem 276:3046-3053, 2000
121. Morin KW, Knaus EE, Wiebe LI, et al: Reporter gene imaging: Effects of ganciclovir treatment on nucleoside uptake, hypoxia and perfusion in a murine gene therapy tumour model that expresses herpes simplex type-1 thymidine kinase. Nucl Med Commun 21:129-137, 2000
122. Haberkorn U, Altmann A, Morr I, et al: Multi tracer studies during gene therapy of hepatoma cells with HSV thymidine kinase and ganciclovir. J Nucl Med 38:1048-1054, 1997
123. Haberkorn U, Bellemann ME, Gerlach L, et al: Uncoupling of 2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose transport and phosphorylation in rat hepatoma during gene therapy with HSV thymidine kinase. Gene Ther 5:880-887, 1998
124. Haberkorn U, Altmann A, Kamencic H, et al: Glucose transport and apoptosis after gene therapy with HSV thymidine kinase. Eur J Nucl Med 28:1690-1696, 2001
125. Martin SJ, Reutelingsperger CPM, McGahon AJ: Early redistribution of plasma membrane phosphatidylserine is a general feature of apoptosis regardless of the initiating stimulus: Inhibition by overexpression of Bcl-2 and Abl. J Exp Med 182:1545-1556, 1995
126. Villa P, Kaufmann SH, Earnshwa WC: Caspases and caspase inhibitors. Trends Biochem Sci 22:388-393, 1997
127. Zwaal RFA, Schroit AJ: Pathophysiologic implications of membrane phospholipid asymmetry in blood cells. Blood 89:1121-1132, 1998
128. Blankenberg FG, Katsikis PD, Tait JF, et al: In vivo detection and imaging of phosphatidylserine expression during programmed cell death. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:6349-6354, 1998
129. 99mTc annexin V. J Nucl Med 40:184-191, 1999
130. Haberkorn U, Kinscherf R, Krammer PH, et al: Investigation of a potential scintigraphic marker of apoptosis: Radio-iodinated Z-Val-Ala-DL-Asp(O-Methyl)-fluoromethyl ketone. Nucl Med Biol 28:793-798, 2001
131. Stemmer WPC: Rapid evolution of protein in vitro by DNA shuffling. Nature 370:389-391, 1994
132. Kolkman JA, Stemmer WPC: Directed evolution of proteins by exon shuffling. Nature Biotechnol 19:423-428, 2001
133. Zwick MB, Shen J, Scott JK: Phage-displayed peptide libraries. Curr Opin Biotechnol 9:427-436, 1998
134. Smithgall TE: SH2 and SH3 domains: Potential targets for anti-cancer drug design. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 34:125-132, 1995
135. Arnold FH: Combinatorial and computational challenges for biocatalyst design. Nature 409:253-257, 2001
136. Ohlstein EH, Ruffolo RR, Elliott JD: Drug discovery in the next millennium. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 40:177-191, 2000