A preliminary fast may potentiate response to a subsequent low-salt, low-fat vegan diet in the management of hypertension - Fasting as a strategy for breaking metabolic vicious cycles

Medical Hypotheses

Volumn 60, Issue 5, 2003, Pages 624-633

  McCarty, M F ^a  

^a Pantox Laboratories   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BLOOD PRESSURE; CALORIE; DATA ANALYSIS; DIET RESTRICTION; DOWN REGULATION; FLUID INTAKE; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RELEASE; LOW FAT DIET; MAINTENANCE THERAPY; METABOLIC DISORDER; METABOLIC REGULATION; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN RESTRICTION; RISK; SAFETY; SODIUM RESTRICTION; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

EID: 0037402472     PISSN: 03069877     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0306-9877(02)00228-1     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. Meneely G. R., Battarbee H. D. High sodium-low potassium environment and hypertension. Am J Cardiol 1976; 38: 768-785.
2. Trowell H. C. Hypertension, obesity, diabetes mellitus and coronary heart disease. In: H. C. Trowell, D. P. Burkitt (eds). Western Diseases: Their Emergence and Prevention. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981: 3-32.
3. MacGregor G. A., de Wardener H. E. Salt, Diet and Health: Neptune's Poisoned Chalice: The Origins of High Blood Pressure. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
4. Moore R. D. The High Blood Pressure Solution. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press, 2001.
5. Kean B. H. The blood pressure of the Curia Indians. Am J Trop Med 1944; 24: 341-343.
6. Denton D., Weisinger R., Mundy N. I. et al. The effect of increased salt intake on blood pressure of chimpanzees [see comments]. Nat Med 1995; 1: 1009-1016.
7. Page L. B., Vandevert K., Nader N., Lubin N. P. J. R. Blood pressure, diet, and body form in traditional nomads of the Qash'qai tribe, southern Iran. Acta Cardiol 1978; 33: 102-103.
8. Liu L. S. Hypertension studies in China. Clin Exp Hypertens A 1989; 11: 859-868.
9. Li S. C., Wang C. C., Fu Y. G. et al. Risk factors for stroke in rural areas of the People's Republic of China: results of a case-control study. Neuroepidemiology 1990; 9: 57-67.
10. Singh R. B., Suh I. L., Singh V. P. et al. Hypertension and stroke in Asia: prevalence, control and strategies in developing countries for prevention. J Hum Hypertens 2000; 14: 749-763.
11. Luft F. C., Weinberger M. H. Heterogeneous responses to changes in dietary salt intake: the salt-sensitivity paradigm. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 65: 6128-6175.
12. MacGregor G. A. The importance of the response of the renin-angiotensin system in determining blood pressure changes with sodium restriction. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1987; 23(suppl. 1): 21S-26S.
13. Galletti F., Ferrara I., Stinga F., Iacone R., Noviello F., Strazzullo P. Evaluation of a rapid protocol for the assessment of salt sensitivity against the blood pressure response to dietary sodium chloride restriction. Am J Hypertens 1997; 10: 462-466.
14. He F. J., Markandu N. D., Sagnella G. A., MacGregor G. A. Importance of the renin system in determining blood pressure fall with salt restriction in black and white hypertensives. Hypertension 1998; 32: 820-824.
15. Taubes G. The (political) science of salt. Science 1998; 281: 898-7.
16. Alderman M. H., Ooi W. L., Cohen H., Madhavan S., Sealey J. E., Laragh J. H. Plasma renm activity: a risk factor for myocardial infarction in hypertensive patients. Am J Hypertens 1997; 10: 1-8.
17. Weder A. B., Egan B. M. Potential deleterious impact of dietary salt restriction on cardiovascular risk factors. Klin Wochenschr 1991; 69(suppl. 25): 45-50.
18. Egan B. M., Stepniakowski K. T. Adverse effects of short-term, very-low-salt diets in subjects with risk-factor clustering. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 65: 671S-677S.
19. Feldman R. D., Schmidt N. D. Moderate dietary salt restriction increases vascular and systemic insulin resistance. Am J Hypertens 1999; 12: 643-647.
20. Graudal N. A., Galloe A. M., Garred P. Effects of sodium restriction on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterols, and triglyceride: a meta-analysis. JAMA 1998; 279: 1383-1391.
21. Alderman M. H. Salt, blood pressure, and human health. Hypertension 2000; 36: 890-893.
22. He J., Ogden L. G., Vupputuri S., Bazzano L. A., Loria C., Whelton P. K. Dietary sodium intake and subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease in overweight adults. JAMA 1999; 282: 2027-2034.
23. Alderman M. H., Cohen H., Madhavan S. Dietary sodium intake and mortality: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES I). Lancet 1998; 351: 781-785.
24. Oliver W. J., Cohen E. L., Ned J. V. Blood pressure, sodium intake, and sodium related hormones in the Yanomamo Indians, a 'no-salt' culture. Circulation 1975; 52: 146-151.
25. Bataineh A., Raij L. Angiotensin II, nitric oxide, and end-organ damage in hypertension. Kidney Int Suppl 1998; 68: S14-S19.
26. Lindeberg S., Lundh B. Apparent absence of stroke and ischaemic heart disease in a traditional. Melanesian island: a clinical study in Kitava. J Int Med 1993; 233: 269-275.
27. Yuan C., Manunta P., Chen S., Hamlyn J. M., Haddy F. J., Pamnani M. B. Role of ouabain-like factors in hypertension:effects of ouabain and certain endogenous ouabain-like factors in hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993; 22(suppl. 2): S10-S12.
28. Kolbel F., Schreiber V. The endogenous digitalis-like factor. Mol Cell Biochem 1996; 160-161: 111-115.
29. Woolfson R. G., Graves J., LaBella F. S., Templeton J. F., Poston L. Effect of bufalin and pregnanes on vasoreactivity of human resistance arteries. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1992; 186: 1-7.
30. Poston L., Woolfson R. G., Graves J. E. Effects of sodium-transport inhibition in human resistance arteries. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993; 22(suppl. 2): S1-S3.
31. McCarty M. F. Up-regulation of endothelial nitric oxide activity as a central strategy for prevention of ischemic stroke - just say NO to stroke!. Med Hypotheses 2000; 55: 386-403.
32. Kashiwagi A., Shinozaki K., Nishio Y. et al. Endothelium-specific activation of NAD(P)H oxidase in aortas of exogenously hyperinsulinemic rats. Am J Physiol 1999; 277: E976-E983.
33. Steinberg H. O., Chaker H., Learning R., Johnson A., Brechtel G., Baron A. D. Obesity/insulin resistance is associated with endothelial dysfunction. Implications for the syndrome of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 1996; 97: 2601-2610.
34. Steinberg H. O., Tarshoby M., Monestel R. et al. Elevated circulating free fatty acid levels impair endothelium-dependent vasodilation. J Clin Invest 1997; 100: 1230-1239.
35. Steinberg H. O., Paradisi G., Hook G., Crowder K., Cronin J., Baron A. D. Free fatty acid elevation impairs insulin-mediated vasodilation and nitric oxide production. Diabetes 2000; 49: 1231-1238.
36. Spieker L. E., Noll G., Ruschitzka F. T., Maier W., Luscher T. F. Working under pressure: the vascular endothelium in arterial hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 2000; 14: 617-630.
37. Taddei S., Virdis A., Ghiadoni L. et al. Restoration of nitric oxide availability after calcium antagonist treatment in essential hypertension. Hypertension 2001; 37: 943-948.
38. Gould K. L., Ornish D., Kirkeeide R. et al. Improved stenosis geometry by quantitative coronary arteriography after vigorous risk factor modification. Am J Cardiol 1992; 69: 845-853.
39. Landau R. L., Rochman H., Blix-Gruber P., Rubenstein A. H. The protein-sparing action of protein feeding:absence of relationship to insulin secretion. Am J Clin Nutr 1981; 34: 1300-1304.
40. Reaven G. M. The kidney: an unwilling accomplice in syndrome X. Am J Kidney Dis 1997; 30: 928-931.
41. Wong F., Blendis L., Logan A. Effects of insulin on renal function, sympathetic nervous activity and forearm blood flow in normal human subjects. Clin Invest Med 1997; 20: 344-353.
42. Scherrer U., Sartori C. Insulin as a vascular and sympathoexcitatory hormone: implications for blood pressure regulation, insulin sensitivity, and cardiovascular morbidity. Circulation 1997; 96: 4104-4113.
43. Emdin M., Gastaldelli A., Muscelli E. et al. Hyperinsulinemia and autonomic nervous system dysfunction in obesity: effects of weight loss. Circulation 2001; 103: 513-519.
44. Conradi E., Jurk D. Studies on the blood pressure behavior during clinical fasting treatment. Z Gesamte Inn Med 1969; 24: 369-372.
45. Gohler L., Hahnemann T., Michael N. et al. Reduction of plasma catecholamines in humans during clinically controlled severe underfeeding. Prey Med 2000; 30: 95-102.
46. Cohen N., Flamenbaum W. Obesity and hypertension. Demonstration of a 'floor effect'. Am J Med 1986; 80: 177-181.
47. Eliahou H. E., Laufer J., Blau A., Shulman L. Effect of low-calorie diets on the sympathetic nervous system, body weight, and plasma insulin in overweight hypertension. Am J Clin Nutr 1992; 56: 1755-1785.
48. Berlin L. J., Rouse I. L., Armstrong B. K., Margetts B. M., Vandongen R. Vegetarian diet and blood pressure levels: incidental or causal association. Am J Clin Nutr 1988; 48: 806-810.
49. Cappuccio F. P., MacGregor G. A. Does potassium supplementation lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis of published trials. J Hypertens 1991; 9: 465-473.
50. McDougall J., Litzau K., Haver E., Saunders V., Spiller G. A. Rapid reduction of serum cholesterol and blood pressure by a twelve-day, very low fat, strictly vegetarian diet. J Am Coll Nutr 1995; 14: 491-496.
51. Appel L. J., Moore T. J., Obarzanek E. et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH collaborative research group. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 1117-1124.
52. Sacks F. M., Svetkey L. P., Vollmer W. M. et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 3-10.
53. Sacks F. M., Rosner B., Kass E. H. Blood pressure in vegetarians. Am J Epidemiol 1974; 100: 390-398.
54. Barnard R. J., Ugianskis E. J., Martin D. A., Inkeles S. B. Role of diet and exercise in the management of hyperinsulinemia and associated atherosclerotic risk factors. Am J Cardiol 1992; 69: 440-444.
55. Fukagawa N. K., Anderson J. W., Hageman G., Young V. R., Minaker K. L. High-carbohydrate, high-fiber diets increase peripheral insulin sensitivity in healthy young and old adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52: 524-528.
56. Rabinowitz D., Merimee T. J., Maffezzoli R., Burgess J. A. Patterns of hormonal release after glucose, protein, and glucose plus protein. Lancet 1966; 2: 454-456.
57. Remer T., Pietrzik K., Manz F. A moderate increase in daily protein intake causing an enhanced endogenous insulin secretion does not alter circulating levels or urinary excretion of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate. Metabolism 1996; 45: 1483-1486.
58. McCarty M. F. The origins of western obesity: a role for animal protein?. Med Hypotheses 2000; 54: 488-494.
59. Ornish D., Brown S. E., Scherwitz L. W. et al. Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? The lifestyle heart trial [see comments]. Lancet 1990; 336: 129-133.
60. Nicholson A. S., Sklar M., Barnard N. D., Gore S., Sullivan R., Browning S. Toward improved management of NIDDM: a randomized, controlled, pilot intervention using a lowfat, vegetarian diet. Prev Med 1999; 29: 87-91.
61. Slabber M., Barnard H. C., Kuyl J. M., Dannhauser A., Schall R. Effects of a low-insulin-response, energy-restricted diet on weight loss and plasma insulin concentrations in hyperinsulinemic obese females. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 60: 48-53.
62. Goldhamer A., Lisle D., Parpia B., Anderson S. V., Campbell T. C. Medically supervised water-only fasting in the treatment of hypertension. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2001; 24: 335-339.
63. Bistrian B. R., Blackburn G. L., Flatt J. P., Sizer J., Scrimshaw N. S., Sherman M. Nitrogen metabolism and insulin requirements in obese diabetic adults on a protein-sparing modified fast. Diabetes 1976; 25: 494-504.
64. Ball M. F., Canary J. J., Kyle L. H. Comparative effects of caloric restriction and total starvation on body composition in obesity. Ann Int Med 1967; 67: 60-67.
65. Edgren B., Wester P. O. Impairment of glomerular filtration in fasting for obesity. Acta Med Scand 1971; 190: 389-393.
66. Rozental P., Biava C., Spencer H., Zimmerman H. J. Liver morphology and function tests in obesity and dining total starvation. Am J Digest Dis 1968; 12: 198-208.
67. Barrett P. V. Hyperbilirubinemia of fasting. JAMA 1971; 217: 1349-1353.
68. Drenick E. J., Alvarez L. C. Neutropenia in prolonged fasting. Am J Clin Nutr 1971; 24: 859-863.
69. Bloom M. L. Fasting as an introduction to the treatment of obesity. Metabolism 1959; 8: 214.
70. Smith R., Drenick E. J. Changes in body water and sodium during prolonged starvation for extreme obesity. Clin Sci 1966; 31: 437-447.
71. Thomson T. J., Runcie J., Miller V. Treatment of obesity by total fasting for up to 249 days. Lancet 1966; 2: 992-996.
72. Bistrian B. R. Clinical use of a protein-sparing modified fast. JAMA 1978; 240: 2299-2302.
73. Winterer J., Bisrrian B. R., Bilmazes C., Blackburn G. L., Young V. R. Whole body protein turnover, studied with 15N-glycine, and muscle protein breakdown in mildly obese subjects during a protein-sparing diet and a brief total fast. Metabolism 1980; 29: 575-581.
74. Contaldo F., Di Biase G., Scalfi L., Presta E., Mancini M. Protein-sparing modified fast in the treatment of severe obesity: weight loss and nitrogen balance data. Int J Obes 1980; 4: 189-196.
75. Palgi A., Read J. L., Greenberg I., Hoefer M. A., Bistrian B. R., Blackburn G. L. Multidisciplinary treatment of obesity with a protein-sparing modified fast: results in 668 outpatients. Am J Public Health 1985; 75: 1190-1194.
76. Vertes V., Genuth S. M., Hazelton I. M. Supplemented fasting as a large-scale outpatient program. JAMA 1977; 238: 2151-2153.
77. Sonne-Holm S., Sorensen T. I., Jensen G., Schnohr P. Independent effects of weight change and attained body weight on prevalence of arterial hypertension in obese and non-obese men. BMJ 1989; 299: 767-770.
78. Abraham S., Collins G., Nordsieck M. Relationship of childhood weight status to morbidity in adults. HSMHA Health Rep 1971; 86: 273-284.
79. Ernsberger P., Koletsky R. J., Baskin J. S., Foley M. Refeeding hypertension in obese spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension 1994; 24: 699-705.
80. Hamm P., Shekelle R. B., Stamler J. Large fluctuations in body weight during young adulthood and twenty-five-year risk of coronary death in men. Am J Epidemiol 1989; 129: 312-318.
81. Lissner L., Odell P. M., D'Agostino R. B. et al. Variability of body weight and health outcomes in the Framingham population. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1839-1844.
82. Pamuk E. R., Williamson D. F., Madans J., Serdula M. K., Kleinman J. C., Byers T. Weight loss and mortality in a national cohort of adults, 1971-1987. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136: 686-697.
83. Lee I. M., Paffenbarger R. S. J. Change in body weight and longevity. JAMA 1992; 268: 2045-2049.
84. Ludwig D. S., Majzoub J. A., Al-Zahrani A., Dallal G. E., Blanco I., Roberts S. B. High glycemic index foods, overeating, and obesity. Pediatrics 1999; 103: E26.
85. Ludwig D. S. Dietary glycemic index and obesity. J Nutr 2000; 130: 280S-283S.
86. Spieth L. E., Harnish J. D., Lenders C. M. et al. A low-glycemic index diet in the treatment of pediatric obesity. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000; 154: 947-951.
87. Lopez-Segura F., Velasco F., Lopez-Miranda J. et al. Monounsaturated fatty acid-enriched diet decreases plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1996; 16: 82-88.
88. Thomsen C., Rasmussen O. W., Hansen K. W., Vesterlund M., Hermansen K. Comparison of the effects on the diurnal blood pressure, glucose, and lipid levels of a diet rich in monounsaturated fatty acids with a diet rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids in type 2 diabetic subjects. Diabet Med 1995; 12: 600-606.
89. Ferrara L. A., Raimondi A. S., d'Episcopo L., Guida L., Dello R. A., Marotta T. Olive oil and reduced need for antihypertensive medications. Arch Int Med 2000; 160: 837-842.
90. Dodson P. M., Stocks J., Holdsworth G., Galton D. J. High-fibre and low-fat diets in diabetes mellitus. Br J Nutr 1981; 46: 289-294.
91. Barnard R. J., Lattimore L., Holly R. G., Cherny S., Pritikin N. Response of non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients to an intensive program of diet and exercise. Diabetes Care 1982; 5: 370-374.
92. Barnard R. J., Massey M. R., Cherny S., O'Brien L. T., Pritikin N. Long-term use of a high-complex-carbohydrate, high-fiber, low-fat diet and exercise in the treatment of NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care 1983; 6: 268-273.
93. Barnard R. J., Jung T., Inkeles S. B. Diet and exercise in the treatment of NIDDM. The need for early emphasis. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 1469-1472.
94. Leahy J. L., Bonner-Weir S., Weir G. C. Beta-cell dysfunction induced by chronic hyperglycemia. Current ideas on mechanism of impaired glucose-induced insulin secretion. Diabetes Care 1992; 15: 442-455.
95. Zangen D. H., Bonner-Weir S., Lee C. H. et al. Reduced insulin, GLUT2, and IDX-1 in beta-cells after partial pancreatectomy. Diabetes 1997; 46: 258-264.
96. Weir G. C., Sharma A., Zangen D. H., Bonner-Weir S. Transcription factor abnormalities as a cause of beta cell dysfunction in diabetes: a hypothesis. Acta Diabetol 1997; 34: 177-184.
97. Leahy J. L., Cooper H. E., Deal D. A., Weir G. C. Chronic hyperglycemia is associated with impaired glucose influence on insulin secretion. A study in normal rats using chronic in vivo glucose infusions. J Clin Invest 1986; 77: 908-915.
98. Rossetti L., Shulman G. I., Zawalich W., DeFronzo R. A. Effect of chronic hyperglycemia on in vivo insulin secretion in partially pancreatectomized rats. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 1037-1044.
99. Giaccari A., Morviducci L., Zorretta D., Sbraccia P., Leonetti F., Caiola S. et al. In vivo effects of glucosamine on insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity in the rat: possible relevance to the maladaptive responses to chronic hyperglycaemia. Diabetologia 1995; 38: 518-524.
100. Rossetti L., Hawkins M., Chen W., Gindi J., Barzilai N. In vivo glucosamine infusion induces insulin resistance in normoglycemic but not in hyperglycemic conscious rats. J Clin Invest 1995; 96: 132-140.
101. Hanefeld M., Weck M. Very low calorie diet therapy in obese non-insulin dependent diabetes patients. Int J Obes 1989; 13(suppl. 2): 33-37.
102. Weck M., Hanefeld M., Schollberg K. Effects of VLCD in obese NIDDM (non-insulin dependent diabetes) on glucose, insulin and C-peptide dynamics. Int J Obes 1989; 13(suppl. 2): 159-160.
103. Henry R. R., Gumbiner B. Benefits and limitations of very-low-calorie diet therapy in obese NDDM. Diabetes Care 1991; 14: 802-823.
104. Wing R. R., Marcus M. D., Salata R., Epstein L. H., Miaskiewicz S., Blair E. H. Effects of a very-low-calorie diet on long-term glycemic control in obese type 2 diabetic subjects [see comments]. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 1334-1340.
105. Wing R. R., Blair E. H., Bononi P., Marcus M. D., Watanabe R., Bergman R. N. Caloric restriction per se is a significant factor in improvements in glycemic control and insulin sensitivity during weight loss in obese NDDM patients. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 30-36.
106. Williams K. V., Mullen M. L., Kelley D. E., Wing R. R. The effect of short periods of caloric restriction on weight loss and glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 1998; 21: 2-8.
107. Kjeldsen-Kragh J., Haugen M., Borchgrevink C. F. et al. Controlled trial of fasting and one-year vegetarian diet in rheumatoid arthritis [see comments]. Lancet 1991; 338: 899-902.
108. Palmblad J., Hafstrom I., Ringertz B. Antirheumatic effects of fasting. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1991; 17: 351-362.
109. McCarty M. F. Up-regulation of lymphocyte apoptosis as a strategy for preventing and treating autoimmune disorders: a role for whole-food vegan diets, fish oil, and dopamine agonists. Med Hypotheses 2001;56 (in press).
110. Trowell H. C., Burkitt D. P. Treatment and prevention: a note on autoimmune disease in sub-Saharal Africans. In: H. C. Trowell, D. P. Burkitt (eds). Western Diseases: Their Emergence and Prevention. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981: 436-443.
111. Kaartinen K., Lammi K., Hypen M., Nenonen M., Hanninen O., Rauma A. L. Vegan diet alleviates fibromyalgia symptoms. Scand J Rheumatol 2000; 29: 308-313.
112. Hanninen, Kaartinen K., Rauma A. L. et al. Antioxidants in vegan diet and rheumatic disorders. Toxicology 2000; 155: 45-53.
113. Zhang S. M., Willett W. C., Heman M. A., Olek M. J., Ascherio A. Dietary fat in relation to risk of multiple sclerosis among two large cohorts of women. Am J Epidemiol 2000; 152: 1056-1064.