Structure and function of xanthine oxidoreductase: Where are we now?

Free Radical Biology and Medicine

Volumn 33, Issue 6, 2002, Pages 774-797

  Harrison, Roger ^a  

^a University of Bath   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Ischemia reperfusion; Nitric oxide; Reactive oxygen species

Indexed keywords

CYTOKINE; ENZYME; HORMONE; MOLYBDOFLAVOENZYME; NITRATE; NITRIC OXIDE; NITRITE; OXYGEN; PEROXYNITRITE; PURINE; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; XANTHINE OXIDASE;

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BLOOD VESSEL; CATABOLISM; CATALYSIS; CELLULAR DISTRIBUTION; ENZYME ANALYSIS; ENZYME STRUCTURE; FOWL; HISTOCHEMISTRY; HUMAN; ISCHEMIA; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MILK; NONHUMAN; OXYGEN TENSION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PUBLICATION; REDUCTION; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REPERFUSION INJURY; REVIEW; STRUCTURE ANALYSIS; TISSUE DISTRIBUTION;

EID: 0037105296     PISSN: 08915849     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0891-5849(02)00956-5     Document Type: Article

References (265)

1. Bray R.C. Molybdenum iron-sulfur flavin hydroxylases and related enzymes. Boyer P.D., The enzymes. 1975;299-419 Academic Press, New York.
2. Patton S., Keenan T.W. The milk fat globule membrane. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 415:1975;273-309.
3. Massey V., Harris C.M. Milk xanthine dehydrogenase the first one hundred years . Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;750-755.
4. Bray, R. C. The inorganic biochemistry of molybdoenzymes. Q. Rev. Biophys. 21:299-329.
5. Hille R. The mononuclear molybdenum enzymes. Chem. Rev. 96:1996;2757-2816.
6. Johnson J.L., Wadman S.K. Molydenum cofactor deficiency and isolated sulfite oxidase deficiency. Scriver C.R., Beaudet A.L., Sly W.S., Valle D., 7th ed. The Metabolic and Molecular Basis of Inherited Disease. vol. II:1995;2271-2283 McGraw-Hill, New York.
7. Simmonds H.A., Reiter S., Nishino T. Hereditary xanthinuria. Scriver C.R., Beaudet A.L., Sly W.S., Valle D., 7th ed. The Metabolic and Molecular Basis of Inherited Disease. vol. II:1995;1781-1798 McGraw-Hill, New York.
8. Granger D.N., Rutili G., McCord J.M. Role of superoxide in feline intestinal ischemia. Gastroenterology. 81:1981;22-29.
9. McCord J.M. Oxygen-derived free radicals in postischemic tissue injury. N. Engl. J. Med. 312:1985;159-163.
10. Granger D.N., Hollwarth M.E., Parks D.A. Ischemia-reperfusion injury role of oxygen-derived free radicals . Acta Physiol. Scand. 548:(Suppl.):1986;47-63.
11. Krenitisky T.A., Tuttle J.V., Cattau E.L., Wang P. A comparison of the distribution and electron acceptor specificities of xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 49B:1974;687-703.
12. Parks D.A., Granger D.N. Xanthine oxidase biochemisty, distribution and physiology . Acta Physiol. Scand. 548:(Suppl.):1986;87-99.
13. Werns S.W., Lucchesi B.R. Free radicals and ischemic tissue injury. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 11:1990;161-166.
14. De Jong J.W., Van der Meer P., Nieukoop A.S., Huizer T., Stroeve R.J., Bos E. Xanthine oxidoreductase activity in perfused hearts of various species, including humans. Circ. Res. 67:1990;770-773.
15. Vettenranta K., Raivio K.O. Xanthine oxidase during fetal development. Pediatr. Res. 27:1990;286-288.
16. Sarnesto A., Linder N., Raivio K.O. Organ distribution and molecular forms of human xanthine dehydrogenase, xanthine oxidase protein. Lab. Invest. 74:1996;48-56.
17. Saksela M., Lapatto R., Raivio K.O. Xanthine oxidoreductase gene expression and enzyme activity in developing human tissues. Biol. Neonate. 74:1998;274-280.
18. Kurosaki M., Li Calzi M., Scanziani E., Garattini E., Terao M. Tissue and cell-specific expression of mouse xanthine oxidoreductase gene in vivo regulation by bacterial lipopolysaccharide . Biochem. J. 306:1995;225-234.
19. Jarasch E.-D., Grund C., Bruder G., Heid H.W., Keenan T.W., Franke W.W. Localization of xanthine oxidase in mammary gland epithelium and capillary endothelium. Cell. 25:1981;67-82.
20. Bruder G., Jarasch E.-D., Heid H.W. High concentrations of antibodies to xanthine oxidase in human and animal sera. Molecular characterization. J. Clin. Invest. 74:1984;783-794.
21. Kooij A., Bosch K.S., Frederiks W.M., Van Noorden C.J.F. High levels of xanthine oxidoreductase in rat endothelial, epithelial and connective tissue cells. Virchows Arch. B Cell Pathol. 62:1992;143-150.
22. Van den Munckhof R.J.M., Vreeling-Sindelarova H., Schellens J.P.M., Van Noorden C.J.F., Frederiks W.M. Ultrastructural localization of xanthine oxidase activity in the digestive tract of the rat. Histochem. J. 27:1995;897-905.
23. Moriwaki Y., Yamamoto T., Yamaguchi K., Takahashi S., Higashino K. Immunohistochemical localization of aldehyde and xanthine oxidase in rat tissues using polyclonal antibodies. Histochem. Cell Biol. 105:1996;71-79.
24. Ichikawa M., Nishino T., Nishino T., Ichikawa A. Subcellular localization of xanthine oxidase in rat hepatocytes. High resolution immunoelectron microscopic study combined with biochemical analysis. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 40:1992;1097-1103.
25. Frederiks W.M., Bosch K.S., Kooij A. Quantitative in situ analysis of xanthine oxidoreductase activity in rat liver. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 43:1995;723-726.
26. Hattori Y. Localization of xanthine dehydrogenase in chicken liver. Acta Histochem. Cytochem. 22:1989;617-624.
27. Moriwaki Y., Yamamoto T., Yamaguchi K., Suda M., Yamakita J.-I., Takahashi S., Hagashino K. Immunohistochemical localization of xanthine oxidase in human tissues. Acta Histochem. Cytochem. 29:1996;153-162.
28. Linder N., Rapola J., Raivio K.O. Cellular expression of xanthine oxidoreductase protein in normal human tissues. Lab. Invest. 79:1999;967-974.
29. Kooij A., Schijns M., Frederiks W.M., Van Noorden C.J.F., James J. Distribution of xanthine oxidoreductase activity in human tissues - a histochemical and biochemical study. Virchows Arch. B Cell Pathol. 63:1992;17-23.
30. Hellsten-Westing Y. Immunohistochemical localization of xanthine oxidase in human cardiac and skeletal muscle. Histochemistry. 100:1993;215-222.
31. DeJong J.W., Schoemaker R., de Jonge R., Bernocchi P., Keijzer E., Harrison R., Sharma H.S., Ceconi C. Enhanced expression and activity of xanthine oxidoreductase in the failing heart. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 32:2000;2083-2089.
32. Hoare C. Xanthine Oxidoreductase Cellular Distribution and Role in NO Production . 2002;Doctoral dissertation, University of Bath, Bath, UK.
33. Moriwaki Y., Yamamoto T., Higashino K. Distribution and pathophysiologic role of molybdenum-containing enzymes. Histol. Histopathol. 12:1997;513-524.
34. Moriwaki Y., Yamamoto T., Higashino K. Enzymes involved in purine metabolism - a review of histochemical localization and functional implications. Histol. Histopathol. 14:1999;1321-1340.
35. Angermuller S., Bruder G., Volkl A., Wesch H., Fahimi H.D. Localization of xanthine oxidase in crystalline cores of peroxisomes. A cytochemical and biochemical study. Eur. J. Cell Biol. 45:1987;137-144.
36. Dikov A., Alexandrov I., Russinova A., Boyadjieva-Michailova A. Ultracytochemical detection of enzymes by reduction of potassium ferricyanide. 1. A method for detection of xanthine oxidase. Acta Histochem. 83:1988;107-115.
37. Rouquette M., Page S., Bryant R., Benboubetra M., Stevens C.R., Blake D.R., Whish W.J.D., Harrison R., Tosh D. Xanthine oxidoreductase is asymmetrically localised on the outer surface of human endothelial and epithelial cells in culture. FEBS Lett. 426:1998;397-401.
38. Vickers S., Schiller H.J., Hildreth J.E., Bulkley G.B. Immunoaffinity localization of the enzyme xanthine oxidase on the outside surface of endothelial cell plasma membrane. Surgery. 124:1998;551-560.
39. Frederiks W.M., Vreeling-Sindelarova H., Straatsburg I.H. Localization of xanthine oxidase activity at the luminal surface of sinusoidal endothelial cells in rat liver. Wisse E., Knook D.L., de Zanger R., Fraser R., Cells of the Hepatic Sinusoid. vol. 7:1999;123-124 Kupfer Cell Foundation, Leiden.
40. Clare D.A., Lecce J.G. Copurification of bovine milk xanthine oxidase and immunoglobulins. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 286:1991;233-237.
41. Kooij A. A re-evaluation of the tissue distribution and physiology of xanthine oxidoreductase. Histochem. J. 26:1994;889-915.
42. 2-dependent forms of rat liver xanthine dehydrogenase. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 172:1976;354-364.
43. Ikegami T., Nishino T. The presence of desulfo-xanthine dehydrogenase in purified and crude enzyme preparations from rat liver. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 247:1986;254-260.
44. Rajagopalan K.V., Handler P. Purification and properties of chicken liver xanthine dehydrogenase. J. Biol. Chem. 242:1967;4097-4107.
45. Nishino T., Nishino T. The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-binding site of chicken liver xanthine dehydrogenase. J. Biol. Chem. 264:1989;5468-5473.
46. Cleere W.F., Coughlan M.P. Avian xanthine dehydrogenases I. Isolation and characterisation of the turkey liver enzyme. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 508:1975;311-322.
47. McManaman J.L., Neville M.C., Wright R.M. Mouse mammary gland xanthine oxidoreductase purification, characterisation and regulation . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 371:1999;308-316.
48. Della Corte E., Stirpe F. The regulation of rat liver xanthine oxidase. Involvement of thiol groups in the conversion of the enzyme activity from dehydrogenase (type D) into oxidase (type O) and purification of the enzyme. Biochem. J. 126:1972;739-745.
49. Hunt J., Massey V. Studies of the reductive half-reaction of milk xanthine dehydrogenase. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;18904-18914.
50. Godber B., Sanders S., Harrison R., Eisenthal R., Bray R.C. > or = 95% of xanthine oxidase in human milk is present as the demolybdo form, lacking molybdopterin. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;519S.
51. Godber B.L.J. Physicochemical and Kinetic Properties of Human Milk Xanthine Oxidoreductase. 1998;Doctoral dissertation, University of Bath, Bath, UK.
52. Gutteridge S., Tanner S.J., Bray R.C. Comparison of the molybdenum centres of native and desulpho xanthine oxidase. Biochem. J. 175:1978;887-897.
53. Wahl R.C., Rajagopalan K.V. Evidence for the inorganic nature of the cyanolyzable sulfur of molybdenum hydroxylases. J. Biol. Chem. 257:1982;1354-1359.
54. Furth-Walker D., Amy N.K. Regulation of xanthine oxidase activity and immunologically detectable protein in rats in response to dietary protein and iron. J. Nutr. 117:1987;1697-1703.
55. Nishino T., Itoh R., Tsushima K. Studies on chicken liver xanthine dehydrogenase with reference to the problem of non-equivalence of FAD moieties. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 403:1975;17-22.
56. Cleere W.F., Coughlan M.P. Turkey liver xanthine dehydrogenase. Reactivation of the cyanide-inactivated enzyme by sulphide and by selenide. Biochem. J. 143:1974;331-340.
57. Frederiks W.A., Bosch K.S. The proportion of xanthine oxidase activity of total xanthine oxidoreductase activity in situ remains constant in rat liver under various (patho)physiological conditions. Hepatology. 24:1996;1179-1184.
58. Parks D.A., Williams T.K., Beckman J.D. Conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to oxidase in ischemic rat intestine a reevaluation . Am. J. Physiol. 254:1988;G768-G774.
59. Avis P.G., Bergel F., Bray R.C. Cellular constituents. The chemistry of xanthine oxidase. Part III Estimations of the cofactors and the catalytic activities of enzyme fractions from cows milk. J. Chem. Soc. 1956;1219-1226.
60. Falciani R., Terao M., Goldwurm S., Ronch A., Gatti A., Minoia C., Li Cazi M., Salmona M., Cazzaniga G., Garattini E. Molybdenum (V) salts convert the xanthine oxidoreductase apoprotein into the active enzyme in mouse L929 fibroblastic cells. Biochem. J. 298:1994;69-77.
61. Massey V., Edmondson D.E. On the mechanism of inactivation of xanthine oxidase by cyanide. J. Biol. Chem. 245:1970;6595-6598.
62. Komai H., Massey V., Palmer G. The preparation and properties of deflavo xanthine oxidase. J. Biol. Chem. 244:1969;1692-1700.
63. Nishino T., Kashima Y., Okamoto K., Iwasaki T., Nishino T. The monomeric form of xanthine dehydrogenase expresses in baculovirus-insect cell system. Stevenson K.J., Massey V., Williams C.H., Flavins and Flavoproteins. 1997;843-846 University of Calgary Press, Calgary.
64. Nishino T., Okamoto K., Hori H., Kounosu A., Nishino T. The mechanism of conversion from xanthine dehydrogenase to oxidase of rat enzyme studied by site-directed mutagenesis. Ghisla S., Kronek P., Macheroux P., Sund H., Flavins and flavoproteins. 1999;791-796 Agency for Scientific Publications, Berlin.
65. Saksela M., Raivio K.O. Cloning and expression in vitro of human xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase. Biochem. J. 315:1996;235-239.
66. Adams B., Smith A.T., Doyle W.A., Bray R.C., Ryan M., Harrison R., Wolstenholme A.J., Romao M.J., Huber R., Demais S., Scazzocchio C. Expression of wild type and mutated Drosophila melanogaster xanthine dehydrogenase in Aspergillus nidulans. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;520S.
67. Adams B., Lowe D.J., Smith A.T., Scazzocchio C., Demais S., Bray R.C. Expression of Drosophila melanogaster xanthine dehydrogenase in Aspergillus nidulans and some properties of the recombinant enzyme. Biochem. J. 362:2002;223-229.
68. Krenitsky T.A., Spector T., Hall W.W. Xanthine oxidase from human liver purification and characterisation . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 247:1986;108-119.
69. Abadeh S., Killacky J., Benboubetra M., Harrison R. Purification and partial characterisation of xanthine oxidase from human milk. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1117:1992;25-32.
70. Sanders S.A., Eisenthal R., Harrison R. NADH oxidase activity of human xanthine oxidoreductase. Generation of superoxide anion. Eur. J. Biochem. 245:1997;541-548.
71. Bray R.C., Lowe D., Godber B., Harrison R., Eisenthal R. Properties of xanthine oxidase from human milk the enzyme is grossly deficient in molybdenum and substantially deficient in iron-sulphur centres . Ghisla S., Kroneck P.M., Macheroux P., Sund H., Flavins and Flavoproteins. 1999;775-778 Agency for Scientific Publication, Berlin.
72. Gardlik S., Barber M.J., Rajagopalan K.V. A molybdopterin-free form of xanthine oxidase. Arch. Biophys. Biochem. 259:1987;363-371.
73. Harrison R. Human xanthine oxidoreductase; in search of a function. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;786-791.
74. Abadeh S., Case P.C., Harrison R. Purification of xanthine oxidase from human heart. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 21:1993;99S.
75. Page S., Powell D., Benboubetra M., Stevens C.R., Blake D.R., Selase F., Wolstenholme A., Harrison R. Xanthine oxidoreductase in human mammary epithelial cells activation in response to inflammatory cytokines . Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1381:1998;191-202.
76. Choudhury S. Immunochemical Methods for Isolation of Xanthine Oxidoreductase from Human Tissues. 2001;Doctoral dissertation, University of Bath, Bath, UK.
77. Xu P., Huecksteadt T.P., Hoidal T.P. Molecular cloning and characterization of the human xanthine dehydrogenase gene. Genomics. 34:1996;173-180.
78. Cazzaniga G., Terao M., Lo Schiavo P., Galbiati F., Segalla F., Seldin M.F., Garattini E. Chromosomal mapping, isolation and characterization of the mouse xanthine dehydrogenase gene. Genomics. 23:1994;390-402.
79. Xu P., Zhu X.L., Huecksteadt T.P., Brothman A.R., Hoidal J.R. Assignment of human xanthine dehydrogenase gene to chromosome 2p22. Genomics. 23:1994;289-291.
80. Terao M., Kurosaki M., Zanotta S., Garattini E. The xanthine oxidoreductase gene structure and regulation . Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;791-796.
81. 2-dependent type. J. Biol. Chem. 265:1990;14170-14175.
82. Terao M., Cazzaniga G., Ghezzi P., Bianchi M., Falciani F., Perani P., Garattini E. Molecular cloning of a cDNA coding for mouse liver xanthine dehydrogenase. Biochem. J. 283:1992;863-870.
83. Sato A., Nishino T., Noda K., Amaya Y., Nishino T. The structure of chicken liver xanthine dehydrogenase, cDNA cloning and the domain structure. J. Biol. Chem. 270:1995;2818-2826.
84. Berglund L., Rasmussen J.T., Anderson M.D., Rasmussen M.S., Petersen T.E. Purification of the bovine xanthine oxidoreductase from milk fat globule membranes and cloning of complementary deoxyribonucleic acid. J. Dairy Sci. 79:1996;196-204.
85. Tsuchida S., Yamada R., Ikemoto S., Tagawa M. Molecular cloning of a cDNA coding for feline xanthine dehydrogenase. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 63:2001;353-355.
86. Ichida K., Amaya Y., Noda K., Minoshima S., Hosoya T., Sakwi O., Shimizu N., Nishino T. Cloning of the cDNA encoding human xanthine dehydrogenase (oxidase); structural analysis of the protein and chromosomal location of the gene. Gene. 133:1993;279-284.
87. Xu P., Huecksteadt T.P., Harrison R., Hoidal J.R. Molecular cloning, tissue expression of human xanthine dehydrogenase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 199:1994;998-1004.
88. Xu P., Huecksteadt T.P., Harrison R., Hoidal J.R. Molecular cloning, tissue expression of human xanthine dehydrogenase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 199:998-1004; 1994. Erratum Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 215:1995;429.
89. Saksela M., Raivio K.O. Cloning and expression in vitro of human xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase. Biochem. J. 315:1996;235-239.
90. Pearson A. Solution of the crystal structure of human milk xanthine oxidoreductase. 2001;Doctoral dissertation, University of St. Andrews, UK.
91. Hille R., Nishino T. Xanthine oxidase and xanthine dehydrogenase. FASEB J. 9:1995;995-1003.
92. Romao M.J., Archer M., Moura I., Mowra J.J.G., LeGall J., Engh R., Schneider M., Hof P., Huber R. Crystal structure of the xanthine oxidase-related aldehyde oxido-reductase from. D. Gigas. Science. 270:1995;1170-1176.
93. Schindelin H., Kisker C., Rajagopalan K.V. Molybdopterin from molybdenum and tungsten enzymes. Adv. Protein Chem. 58:2001;47-94.
94. Kraulis P.J. MOLSCRIPT a program to produce both detailed and schematic plots of protein structures . J. Appl. Crystallography. 24:1991;946-950.
95. Huber R., Hof P., Duarte R.O., Moura J.J.G., Moura I., Liu M.-Y., LeGall J., Hille R., Archer M., Romao M.J. A structure-based catalytic mechanism for the xanthine oxidase family of molybdenum enzymes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:1996;8846-8851.
96. Rebelo J., Macieira S., Dias J.M., Huber R., Ascenso C.S., Rusnak F., Moura J.J.G., Moura I., Romao M.J. Gene sequence and crystal structure of the aldehyde oxidoreductase from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774. J. Mol. Biol. 297:2000;135-146.
97. Dobbek H., Gremer L., Meyer O., Huber R. Crystal structure and mechanism of CO dehydrogenase, a molybdo iron-sulfur flavoprotein containing S-selanylcysteine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 96:1999;8884-8889.
98. Iwasaki T., Okamoto K., Nishino T., Mizushima J., Hori H., Nishino T. Sequence motif-specific assignment of two [2Fe-2S] clusters in rat xanthine oxidoreductase studied by site-directed mutagenesis. J. Biochem. 127:2000;771-778.
99. Avis P.G., Bergel F., Bray R.C., Shooter K.V. A crystalline material with xanthine oxidase activity. Nature. 173:1954;1230-1231.
100. Enroth C., Eger B.T., Okamoto K., Nishino T., Nishino T., Pai E. Crystal structures of bovine milk xanthine dehydrogenase and xanthine oxidase structure based mechanism of conversion . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 97:2000;10723-10728.
101. Fraaije M.W., Mattevi A. Flavoenzymes diverse catalysts with recurrent features . Trends Biochem. Sci. 25:2000;126-132.
102. Massey V., Schopfer L.M., Nishino T., Nishino T. Differences in protein structures of xanthine dehydrogenase and xanthine oxidase revealed by reconstitution with flavin active site probes. J. Biol. Chem. 264:1989;10567-10573.
103. Rasmussen, J. T.; Rasmussen, M. S.; Petersen, T. E. Cysteines involved in the interconversion between dehydrogenase and oxidase forms of bovine xanthine oxidoreductase. J. Dairy Sci. 83: 499-506.
104. Kurose I., Granger D.N. Evidence implicating xanthine oxidase and neutrophils in reperfusion-induced microvascular dysfunction. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 723:1994;158-179.
105. Wiezorek J.S., Brown D.H., Kupperman D.E., Brass C.A. Rapid conversion to high xanthine oxidase activity in viable Kupfer cells during hypoxia. J. Clin. Invest. 94:1994;2224-2230.
106. - in posthypoxic injury of renal epithelial cells. Am. J. Physiol. 263:1992;F251-F255.
107. Massey V., Komai H., Palmer G., Elion G. On the mechanism of inactivation of xanthine oxidase by allopurinol and other pyrazolo [3,4-d]-pyrimidines. J. Biol. Chem. 245:1970;2837-2844.
108. Moorhouse P.C., Grootveld M., Halliwell B., Quinlan J.G., Gutteridge J.M.C. Allopurinol and oxypurinol are hydroxyl radical scavengers. FEBS Lett. 213:1987;23-28.
109. Brass C.A. Xanthine oxidase and reperfusion injury major player or minor irritant? Hepatology. 21:1995;1757-1758.
110. Kooij A., Frederiks W.A., Van Noorden C.J.F. Xanthine oxidase and reperfusion injury major player or minor irritant? Reply . Hepatology. 21:1995;1758-1760.
111. Engerson T.D., McKelvey T.G., Rhyne D.B., Boggio E.B., Snyder S.J., Jones H.P. Conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to oxidase in ischemic rat tissues. J. Clin. Invest. 79:1987;1564-1570.
112. Yokoyama Y., Beckman J.S., Beckman T.K., Wheat J.K., Cash T.G., Freeman B.A., Parks D.A. Circulating xanthine oxidase potential mediator of ishemic injury . Am. J. Physiol. 258:1990;G565-G570.
113. Frederiks W.A., Marx F., Kooij A. The effect of ischaemia on xanthine oxidase activity in rat intestine and liver. Int. J. Exp. Pathol. 74:1993;21-26.
114. Tan S., Yokoyama Y., Dickens E., Cash T.G., Freeman B.A., Parks D.A. Xanthine oxidase activity in the circulation of rats following hemorrhagic shock. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 15:1993;407-414.
115. Kooij A., Schiller H.J., Schijns M., Van Noorden C.J.F., Frederiks W.M. Conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to xanthine oxidase in rat liver and plasma at the onset of reperfusion after ischemia. Hepatology. 19:1994;1488-1495.
116. Nishino T., Nakanishi S., Okamoto K., Mizushimo J., Hori H., Iwashi T., Nishino T., Ishimori K., Nakazawa H. Conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to oxidase and its role in reperfusion injury. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;783-786.
117. Becker B.F. Towards the physiological function of uric acid. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 14:1993;615-631.
118. Phillis J.W., Sen S., Cao X. Amflutizole, a xanthine oxidase inhibitor, inhibits free radical generation in the ischemic/reperfused rat cerebral cortex. Neurosci. Lett. 169:1994;188-190.
119. Beetsch J.W., Park T.S., Dugan L.L., Shah A.R., Gidday J.M. Xanthine oxidase-derived superoxide causes reoxygenation injury of ischemic cerebral endothelial cells. Brain Res. 786:1998;89-95.
120. Betz A.L., Randall J., Martz D. Xanthine oxidase is not a major source of free radicals in focal cerebral ischemia. Am. J. Physiol. 260:1991;H563-H568.
121. Lindsay S., Liu T.H., Xu J.A., Marshall P.A., Thompson J.K., Parks D.A., Freeman B.A., Hsu C.Y., Beckman J.S. Role of xanthine dehydrogenase and oxidase in focal cerebral ischemic injury to rat. Am. J. Physiol. 261:1991;H2051-H2057.
122. Grisham M.G., Granger D.N., Lefer D.J. Modulation of leukocyte-endothelial interactions by reactive metabolites of oxygen and nitrogen. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 25:1998;404-433.
123. Granger D.N. Ischemia-reperfusion mechanisms of microvascular dysfunction and the influence of risk factors for cardiovascular disease . Microcirculation. 6:1999;167-178.
124. Carden D.L., Granger D.N. Pathology of ischemia-reperfusion injury. J. Pathol. 190:2000;255-266.
125. Krieglstein C.F., Granger D.N. Adhesion molecules and their role in vascular disease. Am. J. Hypertens. 14:2001;44S-54S.
126. Granger D.N., Stokes K.Y., Shigematsu W.H., Cerwinka W.H., Tailor A., Krieglstein C.F. Splanchnic ischaemia-reperfusion injury mechanistic insights provided by mutant mice . Acta Physiol. Scand. 173:2001;83-91.
127. Shamma'a M.H., Nasrallah S.M., Al-Khalidi U.A.S. Serum xanthine oxidase. An experience with 2000 patients. Dig. Dis. 18:1973;15-22.
128. Giler S., Sperling O., Brosh S., Urca I., deVries A. Serum xanthine oxidase in jaundice. Clin. Chim. Acta. 63:1975;37-40.
129. Grum C.M., Ragsdale R.A., Ketai L.H., Simon R.H. Plasma xanthine oxidase activity in patients with adult respiratory distress syndrome. J. Crit. Care. 2:1987;22-26.
130. McHale A., Grimes H., Coughlan M.P. Human serum xanthine oxidase fluorometric assay applicable to the investigation of liver disorders . Int. J. Biochem. 10:1979;317-319.
131. Mohacsi A., Kozlovszky B., Kiss I., Seres I., Fulop T. Neutrophils obtained from obliterative atherosclerotic patients exhibit enhanced resting respiratory burst and increased degranulation in response to various stimuli. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1316:1996;210-216.
132. Yamomoto T., Moriwaki Y., Takahashi S., Tsutsumi Z., Yamakita J.-I., Nasako Y., Hiroishi K., Higashino K. Determination of human plasma xanthine oxidase activity by high-performance liquid chromatography. J. Chromatogr. 681:1996;395-400.
133. Miesel R., Zuber M. Elevated levels of xanthine oxidase in serum of patients with inflammatory and autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Inflammation. 17:1993;551-561.
134. Ramboer C., Piessens F., deGroote J. Serum xanthine oxidase and liver disease. Digestion. 7:1972;183-195.
135. Wolko K., Krawczynski J. Diagnostic value of determination of serum xanthine oxidase activity in acute viral hepatitis. Mat. Med. Pol. 6:1974;95-98.
136. Friedl H.P., Smith D.J., Till G.O., Thomson P.D., Louis D.S., Ward P.A. Ischemia-reperfusion in humans. Appearance of xanthine oxidase activity. Am. J. Pathol. 136:1990;491-495.
137. Terada L.S., Dormish J.J., Shanley P.F., Leff J.A., Anderson B.O., Repine J.E. Circulating xanthine oxidase mediates lung neutrophil sequestration after intestinal ischemia-reperfusion. Am. J. Physiol. 263:1992;L394-L401.
138. Tan S., Gelman S., Wheat J.K., Parks D.A. Circulating xanthine oxidase in human ischemia reperfusion. South. Med. J. 88:1995;479-482.
139. Mathru M., Dries D.J., Barnes L., Tonino P., Sukhani R., Rooney M.W. Tourniquet-induced exsanguination in patients requiring lower limb surgery. An ischemia-reperfusion model of oxidant and antioxidant metabolism. Anesthesiology. 84:1996;14-22.
140. Marti R., Varela E., Pascual C., Segura R.M. Determination of xanthine oxidoreductase forms influence of reaction conditions . Clin. Chim. Acta. 303:2001;117-125.
141. Price L.J., Harrison R. Sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for xanthine oxidase. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 21:1993;102S.
142. Batelli M.G., Abbondanza A., Musiani S., Buonamici L., Strocchi P., Tazzari P.L., Gramantieri L., Stirpe F. Determination of xanthine oxidase in human serum by a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Clin. Chim. Acta. 281:1999;147-158.
143. Bondarenko I.G., Harrison R., von Bonsdorff C.-H., Lappalainen M., Sakhon N.G., Pavlovich D.A., Sapegin A.A., Nemtsova O.G., Albetkova A.A., Musabayev I.I. Serum IgM antibodies to xanthine oxidoreductase in acute viral hepatitis. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 60:(Suppl. 232):2000;82.
144. Bondarenko I.G., Harrison R., Bosmans E., Nemtsova O. Quantitative determination of xanthine oxidoreductase in serum/plasma. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Natural Antioxidants and Anticarcinogens in Food, Health and Disease. 2001;81-82 University of Kuopio, Kuopio.
145. Batelli M.G., Musiani S., Valgimigli M., Gramantieri L., Tomassoni F., Bolondi L., Stirpe F. Serum xanthine oxidase in human liver disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 96:2001;1194-1199.
146. Pesonen E.J., Linder N., Raivio K.O., Sarnesto A., Lapatto R., Hockerstedt K., Makisalo H., Anderson S. Circulating xanthine oxidase and neutrophil activation during human liver transplantation. Gastroenterology. 14:1998;1009-1015.
147. Weinbroum A., Nielsen V.G., Tan S., Gelman S., Matalon S., Skinner K.A., Bradley E., Parks D.A. Liver ischemia-reperfusion increases pulmonary permeability in rat role of circulating xanthine oxidase . Am. J. Physiol. 268:1995;. F988-G996.
148. Adachi T., Fukushima T., Usami Y., Hirano K. Binding of human xanthine oxidase to sulphated glycosaminoglycans on the endothelial cell surface. Biochem. J. 289:1993;523-527.
149. Radi R., Rubbo H., Bush K., Freeman B.A. Xanthine oxidase binding to glycosaminoglycans kinetics and superoxide dismutase interactions of immobilized xanthine oxidase-heparin complexes . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 339:1997;125-135.
150. Houston M., Estevez A., Chumley P., Aslan M., Marklund S., Parks D.A., Freeman B.A. Binding of xanthine oxidase to vascular endothelium. Kinetic characterization and oxidative impairment of nitric oxide-dependent signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 274:1999;4985-4994.
151. Murray J.F., Matthay M.A., Luce J.M., Fick M.R. An expanded definition of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 138:1988;720-723.
152. Benboubetra M., Gleeson A., Harris C.P.D., Khan J., Arrar L., Brennand D., Reid J., Reckless J.D., Harrison R. Circulating anti-(xanthine oxidoreductase) antibodies in healthy human adults. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 27:1997;611-619.
153. Harrison R., Benboubetra M., Bryson S., Thomas R.D., Elwood P.C. Antibodies to xanthine oxidase elevated levels in patients with acute myocardial infarction . Cardioscience. 1:1990;183-189.
154. Jones O.T.G., Hancock J.T. The NADPH oxidase of neutrophils and other cells. Winyard P.G., Blake D.R., Evans C.H., Free Radicals and Inflammation. 2000;21-46 Birkhauser Verlag, Basel.
155. Varani J., Ward P.A. Mechanisms of endothelial cell injury in acute inflammation. Shock. 2:1994;311-319.
156. Bulkley G.B. Physiology of reactive oxidant-mediated signal transduction an overview . Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;804-812.
157. Harrison R. Xanthine oxidoreductase. Winyard P.G., Blake D.R., Evans C.H., Free Radicals and Inflammation. 2000;65-81 Birkhauser Verlag, Basel.
158. Lefer D.J., Granger D.N. Oxidative stress and cardiac disease. Am. J. Med. 109:2000;315-323.
159. Ichikawa H., Flores S., Kvietys P.R., Wolf R.E., Yoshikawa T., Granger D.N., Aw T.Y. Molecular mechanisms of anoxia/reoxygenation-induced neutrophil adherence to cultured endothelial cells. Circ. Res. 81:1997;922-931.
160. Salas A., Panes J., Elizaide J.I., Granger D.N., Pique J.M. Reperfusion-induced oxidative stress in diabetes cellular and enzymatic sources . J. Leukoc. Biol. 66:1999;59-66.
161. Akgur F.M., Brown M.F., Zibari G.B., McDonald J.C., Epstein C.J., Ross C.R., Granger D.N. Role of superoxide in hemorrhagic shock-induced P-selectin expression. Am. J. Physiol. 279:2000;H791-H797.
162. Kojda G., Harrison D.G. Interactions between NO and reactive oxygen species pathophysiological importance in atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes and heart failure . Cardiovasc. Res. 43:1999;562-571.
163. Cai H., Harrison D.G. Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases. Circ. Res. 87:2000;840-844.
164. Berry C., Brosnan M.J., Fennell J., Hamilton C.A., Dominiczak A.F. Oxidative stress and vascular damage in hypertension. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 10:2001;247-255.
165. Stokes K.Y., Clanton E.C., Russell J.M., Ross C.R., Granger D.N. NAD(P)H oxidase-derived superoxide mediates hypercholesterolemia-induced leukocyte-endothelial cell adhesion. Circ. Res. 88:2001;499-505.
166. Griendling K.K., Sorescu D., Ushio-Fukai M. NAD(P)H oxidase. Role in cardiovascular biology and disease. Circ. Res. 86:2000;494-501.
167. Meyer J.W., Schmitt M.E. A central role for the endothelial NADPH oxidase in atherosclerosis. FEBS Lett. 472:2000;1-4.
168. Nakazono K., Watanabe N., Matsuno K., Sasaki J., Sato T., Inoue M. Does superoxide underlie the pathogenesis of hypertension? Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 88:1991;10045-10048.
169. Miyamoto Y., Akaike T., Yoshida M., Goto S., Horie H., Maeda H. Potentiation of nitric oxide-mediated vasorelaxation by xanthine oxidase inhibitors. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 211:1996;366-373.
170. Susuki H., Swei A., Zweifach B.W., Schmid-Schonbein G.W. In vivo evidence for microvascular oxidative stress in spontaneously hypertensive rats hydroethidine microfluorography . Hypertension. 25:1995;1083-1089.
171. Ohara Y., Peterson T.E., Harrison D.G. Hypercholesterolemia increases endothelial superoxide anion production. J. Clin. Invest. 91:1993;2546-2551.
172. White C.R., Darley-Usmar V., Berrington W.R., McAdams M., Gore J.Z., Thompson J.A., Parks D.A., Tarpey M.M., Freeman B.A. Circulating plasma xanthine oxidase contributes to vascular dysfunction in hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:1996;8745-8749.
173. Berry C., Hamilton C.A., Brosnan M.J., Magill F.G., Berg G.A., McMurray J.J.V., Dominiczak A.F. Investigation into the sources of superoxide in human blood vessels. Angiotensin II increases superoxide production in human internal mammary arteries. Circulation. 101:2000;2206-2212.
174. Cardillo C., Kilcoyne C.M., Cannon R.O., Quyyumi A.A., Panza J.A. Xanthine oxidase inhibition with oxypurinol improves endothelial vasodilator function in hypercholesterolemic but not hypertensive patients. Hypertension. 30:1997;57-63.
175. Cappola T.P., Kass D.A., Nelson G.S., Berger R.D., Rosas G.O., Kobeissi Z.A., Marban E., Hare J.M. Allopurinol improves myocardial efficiency in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 104:2001;2407-2411.
176. Hassoun P.M., Yu F.S., Zulueta J.J., White A.C., Lanzillo J.J. Effect of nitric oxide and cell redox status on the regulation of endothelial cell xanthine dehydrogenase. Am. J. Physiol. 268:1995;L809-L817.
177. Cote G.G., Yu F.-S., Zulueta J.J., Vosatka R.J., Hassoun P.M. Regulation of intracellular xanthine oxidase by endothelial-derived nitric oxide. Am. J. Physiol. 271:1996;L869-L874.
178. Ichimori K., Fukahori M., Nakazawa H., Okamoto K., Nishino T. Inhibition of xanthine oxidase and xanthine dehydrogenase by nitric oxide. J. Biol. Chem. 274:1999;7763-7768.
179. Houston M., Chumley P., Radi R., Rubbo H., Freeman B.A. Xanthine oxidase reaction with nitric oxide and peroxynitrite. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 355:1998;1-8.
180. Lee C.-I., Liu X., Zweier J.L. Regulation of xanthine oxidase by nitric oxide and peoxynitrite. J. Biol. Chem. 275:2000;9369-9376.
181. Godber B.L.J., Doel J.J., Goult T.A., Eisenthal R., Harrison R. Suicide inactivation of xanthine oxidoreductase during reduction of inorganic nitrite to nitric oxide. Biochem. J. 358:2001;325-333.
182. Godber B.L.J., Doel J.J., Sapkota G.P., Blake D.R., Stevens C.R., Eisenthal R., Harrison R. Reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide catalysed by xanthine oxidoreductase. J. Biol. Chem. 275:2000;7757-7763.
183. Li H., Samouilov A., Liu X., Zweier J.L. Characterization of the magnitude and kinetics of xanthine oxidase catalyzed nitrite reduction. J. Biol. Chem. 276:2001;24482-24489.
184. Koppenol W.H. The basic chemistry of nitrogen monoxide and peroxynitrite. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 25:1998;385-391.
185. Ronson R.S., Nakamura M., Vinten-Johansen J. The cardiovascular effects and implications of peroxynitrite. Cardiovasc. Res. 44:1999;47-59.
186. Godber B.L.J., Doel J.J., Durgan J., Eisenthal R., Harrison R. A new route to peroxynitrite a role for xanthine oxidoreductase . FEBS Lett. 475:2000;93-96.
187. Vasquez-Vivar J., Kalyanaraman B., Martasek P., Hogg N., Masters B.S., Karoui H., Tordo P., Pritchard K.A. Superoxide generation by endothelial nitric oxide synthase the influence of cofactors . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95:1998;9220-9225.
188. Squadrito G.L., Cueto R., Splenser A.E., Valavanidis A., Zhang H., Uppu R.M., Pryor W.A. Reaction of uric acid with peroxynitrite and implications for the mechanism of neuroprotection by uric acid. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 376:2000;333-337.
189. Hooper D.C., Scott G.S., Zborek A., Mikheeva T., Kean R.B., Koprowski H., Spitsin S.V. Uric acid, a peroxynitrite scavenger, inhibits CNS inflammation, blood-CNS barrier permeability changes, and tissue damage in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. FASEB J. 14:2000;691-698.
190. Ames B.N., Cathcart R., Schwiers E., Hochstein P. Uric acid provides antioxidant defense against oxidant and radical caused aging and cancer a hypothesis . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 78:1981;6858-6862.
191. Hensley K., Maidt M.L., Yu Z., Sang H., Markesbery W.R., Floyd R.A. Electrochemical analysis of protein nitrotyrosine and dityrosine in the Alzheimer brain indicates region-specific accumulation. J. Neurosci. 18:1998;8126-8132.
192. Church W.H., Ward V.L. Uric acid is reduced in the substantia nigra in Parkinson's disease effect on dopamine oxidation . Brain Res. Bull. 33:1994;419-425.
193. Christen S., Bifrare Y.-D., Siegenthaler C., Leib S.L., Tauber M.G. Marked elevation in cortical urate and xanthine oxidoreductase activity in experimental bacterial meningitis. Brain Res. 900:2001;244-251.
194. Pfeffer K.D., Huecksteadt T.P., Hoidal J.R. Xanthine dehydrogenase and xanthine oxidase activity and gene expression in renal epithelial cells. J. Immunol. 153:1994;1789-1797.
195. Xu P., LaVallee P., Hoidal J.R. Repressed expression of the human xanthine oxidoreductase gene. E-box and TATA-like elements restrict ground state transcriptional activity. J. Biol. Chem. 275:2000;5918-5926.
196. Chow C.-W., Clark M.P., Rinaldo J.E., Chalkley R. Multiple initiators and C/EBP binding sites are involved in transcription from the TATA-less rat XDH/XO basal promoter. Nucleic Acids Res. 22:1995;1846-1854.
197. Dupont G.P., Huecksteadt T.P., Marshall B.C., Ryan U.S., Michael J.R., Hoidal J.R. Regulation of xanthine dehydrogenase and xanthine oxidase activity and gene expression in cultured rat pulmonary endothelial cells. J. Clin. Invest. 89:1992;197-202.
198. Falciani F., Ghezzi P., Terao M., Cazzaniga G., Garattini E. Interferons induce xanthine dehydrogenase gene expression in 929 cells. Biochem. J. 285:1992;1001-1008.
199. Brown A.-M., Benboubetra M., Ellison M., Powell D., Reckless J.D., Harrison R. Molecular activation-deactivation of xanthine oxidase in human milk. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1245:1995;248-254.
200. McManaman J.L., Hanson L., Neville M.C., Wright R.M. Lactogenic hormones regulate xanthine oxidoreductase and β-casein levels in mammary epithelial cells by distinct mechanisms. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 373:2000;318-327.
201. Hassoun P.M., Yu F.S., Shedd A.L., Zulueta J.J., Thannikal V.J., Lanzillo J.J., Fanburg B.L. Regulation of endothelial cell xanthine dehydrogenase/xanthine oxidase gene expression by oxygen tension. Am. J. Physiol. 266:1994;L163-L171.
202. Poss W.B., Huecksteadt T.P., Panus P.C., Freeman B.A., Hoidal J.R. Regulation of xanthine dehydrogenase activity by hypoxia. Am. J. Physiol. 270:1996;L941-L946.
203. Kayyali U.S., Donaldson C., Huang H., Abdelnour R., Hassoun P.M. Phosphorylation of xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase in hypoxia. J. Biol. Chem. 276:2001;. 14395-14365.
204. Batelli M.G., Buonamici L., Virgili M., Abbondanza A., Contestabile A. Simulated ischaemia-reperfusion conditions increase xanthine dehydrogenase and oxidase activities in rat brain slices. Neurochem. Int. 32:1998;17-21.
205. Terada L.S., Piermattei D., Shibao G.N., McManaman J.L., Wright R.M. Hypoxia regulates xanthine dehydrogenase activity at pre- and posttranslational levels. Arch. Biochem.Biophys. 348:1997;163-168.
206. Hoidal J.R., Xu P., Huecksteadt T., Sanders K.A., Pfeffer K. Transcriptional regulation of human xanthine dehydrogenase/xanthine oxidase. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;796-799.
207. Itoh R., Nishino T., Usami C., Tsushima K. An immunochemical study of the changes in chicken liver xanthine dehydrogenase activity during dietary adaptation. J. Biochem. 84:1978;19-26.
208. Nishino T., Usami C., Tsushima K. Reversible interconversion between sulfo and desulfo xanthine oxidase in a system containing rhodanese, thiosulfate and sulfhydryl reagent. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 80:1983;1826-1829.
209. Nishino T. Reversible interconversion between sulfo and desulfo xanthine oxidase. Nyham W.L., Thompson L.F., Watts R.W.E., Purine and Pyrimidine Metabolism in Man. 1986;259-262 Plenum, New York.
210. Coughlan M.P. Is protein function regulated by the reversible incorporation of sulphur? Biochem. Soc. Trans. 9:1981;307-308.
211. Wahl R.C., Warner C.K., Finnerty V., Rajagopalan K.V. Drosophila melanogaster ma-l mutants are defective in the sulfuration of desulfo Mo hydrolases. J. Biol. Chem. 257:1982;3958-3962.
212. Amrani L., Primus J., Glatigny A., Arcangeli L., Scazzocchio C., Finnerty V. Comparison of the sequences of the Aspergillus nidulans hxB and Drosophila melanogaster ma-1 genes with nifS from Azotobacter vinelandii suggests a mechanism for the insertion of the terminal sulphur atom in the molybdopterin cofactor. Mol. Microbiol. 38:2000;114-125.
213. Watanabe T., Ihara N., Itoh T., Fujita T., Sugimoto Y. Deletion mutation in Drosophila ma-1 homologous, putative molybdopterin cofactor sulfurase gene is associated with bovine xanthinuria type II. J. Biol.Chem. 275:2000;21789-21792.
214. Ichida K., Matsumura T., Sakuma R., Hosoya T., Nishino T. Mutation of human molybdenum cofactor sulfurase gene is responsible for classical xanthinuria type II. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 282:2001;1194-1200.
215. Ichida K., Amaya Y., Kamatani N., Nishino T., Hosoya T., Sakai O. Identification of two mutations in human xanthine dehydrogenase gene responsible for classical type I xanthinuria. J. Clin. Invest. 99:1997;2391-2397.
216. Yamamoto T., Moriwaki Y., Shibutani Y., Matsui K., Ueo T., Takahashi S., Tsutsumi Z., Hada T. Human xanthine dehydrogenase cDNA sequence and protein in an atypical case of type 1 xanthinuria in comparison with normal subjects. Clin. Chim. Acta. 304:2001;153-158.
217. Rajagopalan K.V. Biosynthesis and processing of the molybdenum cofactors. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;757-761.
218. Reiss J. Genetics of molybdenum cofactor deficiency. Hum. Genet. 106:2000;157-163.
219. Stallmeyer B., Schwarz G., Schulze J., Nerlich A., Reiss J., Kirsh J., Mendel R.R. The neurotransmitter receptor-anchoring protein gephyrin reconstitutes molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis in bacteria, plants and mammalian cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 96:1999;1333-1338.
220. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance and chemical studies of the phosphorus residues in bovine milk xanthine oxidase. Eur. J. Biochem. 145:1984;237-243.
221. Johnson J.L., London R.E., Rajagopalan K.V. Covalently bound phosphate residues in bovine milk xanthine oxidase and in glucose oxidase from Aspergillus niger a reevaluation . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 86:1989;6493-6497.
222. 31P ENDOR studies of xanthine oxidase: coupling of phosphorus of the pterin cofactor to molybdenum (V). Biochemistry. 30:1991;3969-3975.
223. Schieber A., Edmondson D.E. Studies on the induction and phosphorylation of xanthine dehydrogenase in cultured chick embryo hepatocytes. Eur. J. Biochem. 215:1993;307-314.
224. 2-dependent types of rat liver xanthine dehydrogenase. J. Biol. Chem. 264:1989;10015-10022.
225. Nishino T., Nakanishi S., Okamoto K., Mizushima J., Hori H., Iwasaki T., Nishino T., Ichimori K., Nakazawa H. Conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase into oxidase and its role in reperfusion injury. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;783-786.
226. Friedl H.P., Till G.O., Ryan U.S., Ward P.A. Mediator-induced activation of xanthine oxidase in endothelial cells. FASEB. J. 3:1989;2512-2518.
227. Millar T.M., Stevens C.R., Blake D.R. Xanthine oxidase can generate nitric oxide from nitrate in ischaemia. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;528S.
228. Zhang Z., Naughton D.P., Blake D.R., Benjamin N., Stevens C.R., Winyard P.G., Symons M.C.R., Harrison R. Human xanthine oxidase converts nitrite ions into nitric oxide. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25:1997;524S.
229. Millar T.M., Stevens C.R., Benjamin N., Eisenthal R., Harrison R., Blake D.R. Xanthine oxidoreductase catalyses the reduction of nitrates and nitrite to nitric oxide under hypoxic conditions. FEBS Lett. 427:1998;225-228.
230. Zhang Z., Naughton D., Winyard P.G., Benjamin N., Blake D.R., Symons M.C.R. Generation of nitric oxide by a nitrite reductase activity of xanthine oxidase a potential pathway for nitric oxide formation in the absence of nitric oxide synthase activity . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 249:1998;767-772.
231. Murray J., Macartney D., Thatcher G.R.J. Catalysis of NO production by a molybdoenzyme model. Org. Lett. 3:2001;3635-3638.
232. Gladwin M.T., Shelhamer J.H., Schecter A.N., Pease-Eye M.E., Waclawiw M.A., Panza J.A., Ognibene F.P., Cannon R.O. Role of circulating nitrite and S-nitrosohemoglobin in the regulation of regional blood flow in humans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 97:2000;11482-11487.
233. Demoncheaux E.A.G., Higginbottam T.W., Foster P.J., Borland C.D.R., Smith A.P.L., Marriott H.M., Bee D., Akamine S., Davies M.B. Circulating nitrite anions are a directly acting vasodilator and are donors for nitric oxide. Clin. Sci. 102:2002;77-83.
234. Green D.E., Pauli R. The antibacterial action of the xanthine oxidase system. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 54:1943;148-150.
235. Tubaro E., Lotti B., Santiangeli C., Cavallo G. Xanthine oxidase increase in polymorphonuclear leucocytes and macrophages in mice in three pathological situations. Biochem. Pharmacol. 29:1980;1945-1948.
236. Umezawa K., Akaike T., Fujii S., Suga M., Setoguchi K., Ozawa A., Maeda H. Induction of nitric oxide synthesis and xanthine oxidase and their roles in the antimicrobial mechanism against Salmonella typhimurium infection in mice. Infect. Immun. 65:1997;2932-2940.
237. Brunelli L., Crow J.P., Beckman J.S. The comparative toxicity of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite to. Escherichia coli. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 316:1995;327-334.
238. Keenan T.W., Patton S. The structure of milk implications for sampling and storage. A. The milk lipid globule membrane . Jensen R.G., Handbook of Milk Composition. 1995;5-50 Academic Press, New York.
239. Jann K., Jann B. Capsules of Escherichia coli. Sussman M., Escherichia coli mechanisms of Virulence . 1997;113-143 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
240. DeMoss J.A., Hsu P.-Y. NarK enhances nitrate uptake and nitrite excretion in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 173:1991;3303-3310.
241. Cole J. Nitrate reduction to ammonia by enteric bacteria redundancy, or a strategy for survival during oxygen starvation? FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 136:1996;1-11.
242. Nakamura M., Yamazaki I. Preparation of bovine milk xanthine oxidase as a dehydrogenase form. J. Biochem. 92:1982;1279-1286.
243. Stevens C.R., Millar T.M., Clinch J.G., Kanczler J.M., Bodamyali T., Blake D.R. Antibacterial properties of xanthine oxidase in human milk. Lancet. 356:2000;829-830.
244. Iizuka T., Sasaki M., Oishi K., Uemura S., Koike M., Shinozaki M. Non-enzymatic nitric oxide generation in the stomachs of breastfed neonates. Acta Paediatr. 88:1999;1053-1055.
245. Bjorck L., Claesson O. Xanthine oxidase as a source of hydrogen peroxide for the lactoperoxidase system in milk. J. Dairy Sci. 62:1979;1211-1215.
246. Fung H.L., Chung S.J., Bauer J.A., Chong S., Kowaluk E.A. Biochemical mechanism of organic nitrate action. Am. J. Cardiol. 70:1992;4B-10B.
247. Harrison D.G., Bates J.N. The nitrovasodilators new ideas about old drugs . Circulation. 87:1993;1461-1467.
248. Parker J.D., Parker J.O. Nitrate therapy for stable angina pectoris. N. Engl. J. Med. 338:1998;520-531.
249. Chong S., Fung H.L. Biochemical and pharmacological interactions between nitroglycerin and thiols. Biochem. Pharmacol. 42:1991;1433-1439.
250. Doel J.J., Godber B.L.J., Eisenthal R., Harrison R. Reduction of organic nitrates catalysed by xanthine oxidoreductase under anaerobic conditions. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1527:2001;81-87.
251. Schroder H. Cytochrome P-450 mediates bioactivation of organic nitrates. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 262:1992;298-302.
252. Wong P.S.-Y., Fukuto J.M. Reaction of organic nitrate esters with reduced flavins a possible mechanism of bioactivation . Drug Metab. Dispos. 27:1999;502-509.
253. 2 formation. Biochem. J. 292:1993;545-550.
254. Ratz J.D., McGuire J.J., Anderson D.J., Bennett B.M. Effects of the flavoprotein inhibitor, diphenyleneiodonium sulfate, on ex vivo organic nitrate tolerance in the rat. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 293:2000;569-577.
255. Hasegawa K., Taniguchi T., Takakura K., Goto Y., Muramatsu I. Possible involvement of nitroglycerin converting step in nitoglycerin tolerance. Life Sci. 24:1999;2199-2206.
256. O'Byrne S., Shirodaria C., Millar T., Stevens C., Blake D., Benjamin N. Inhibition of platelet aggregation with glyceryl trinitrate and xanthine oxidoreductase. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 292:2000;326-330.
257. Brunton T.L. On the use of nitrite of amyl in angina pectoris. Lancet. ii:1876;97-98.
258. Murrell W. Nitroglycerin as a remedy for angina pectoris. Lancet. i:1879;80-81.
259. Haverkos H.W., Dougherty J. Health hazards of nitrite inhalants. Am. J. Med. 84:1988;479-482.
260. Doel J.J. Production of Nitric Oxide from Nitrites and Nitrates Catalysed by Xanthine Oxidoreductase. 2000;Doctoral dissertation, University of Bath, Bath, UK.
261. Doel J.J., Godber B.L.J., Goult T.A., Eisenthal R., Harrison R. Reduction of organic nitrites to nitric oxide catalysed by xanthine oxidase possible role in metabolism of nitrovasodilators . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 270:2000;880-885.
262. Stamler J.S., Jaraki O., Osbourne J., Simon D.I., Keaney J., Vita J., Singel D., Valeri R., Loscalzo J. Nitric oxide circulates in mammalian plasma primarily as an S-nitroso adduct of serum albumin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89:1992;7674-7677.
263. Trujillo M., Alvarez M.N., Peluffo G., Freeman B.A., Radi R. Xanthine oxidase-mediated decomposition of S-Nitrosothiols. J. Biol. Chem. 273:1998;7828-7834.
264. Irani K. Oxidant signalling in vascular cell growth, death and survival. Circ. Res. 87:2000;179-183.
265. Hancock J.T., Desikan R., Neill S.J. Role of reactive oxygen species in cell signalling pathways. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 29:2001;345-350.