Lessons from allergic rhinitis versus asthma pathogenesis and treatment

Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 845-869

  Grayson, Mitchell H ^a   Holtzman, Michael J ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIHISTAMINIC AGENT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; CETIRIZINE; CHEMOKINE; CROMOGLYCATE DISODIUM; DECONGESTIVE AGENT; DESLORATADINE; DNA VACCINE; FEXOFENADINE; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLYCOPYRRONIUM BROMIDE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN E ANTIBODY; INTERLEUKIN 4; INTERLEUKIN 5; IPRATROPIUM BROMIDE; LEUKOTRIENE RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; LORATADINE; MOMETASONE FUROATE; MONTELUKAST; OMALIZUMAB; OXITROPIUM BROMIDE; TIOTROPIUM BROMIDE; ZAFIRLUKAST; ZILEUTON;

ALLERGIC ASTHMA; ALLERGIC CONJUNCTIVITIS; ALLERGIC RHINITIS; ANTIGEN PRESENTATION; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; EPISTAXIS; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETIC ENGINEERING; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HUMAN; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOTHERAPY; LUNG FUNCTION; MOLECULAR MIMICRY; NOSE IRRITATION; NOSE SEPTUM PERFORATION; PARAMYXOVIRUS; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; TH2 CELL;

EID: 0036838381     PISSN: 08898561     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0889-8561(02)00027-9     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Kay AB. Allergy and allergic diseases. N Engl J Med 2001;344:30-7.
2. Aberg N, Hesselmar B, Aberg B, Eriksson B. Increase of asthma, allergic rhinitis and eczema in Swedish schoolchildren between 1979 and 1991. Clin Exp Allergy 1995;25:815-9.
3. Dykewicz MS, Fineman S, Skoner DP, et al. Diagnosis and management of rhinitis: Complete guidelines of the joint task force on practice parameters in allergy asthma, and immunology. Ann Allergy 1998;81:478-518.
4. Linneberg A, Nielsen NH, Madsen F, Frolund L, Dirksen A, Jorgensen T. Increasing prevalence of allergic rhinitis symptoms in an adult Danish population. Allergy 1999;54:1194-8.
5. Skoner DP. Allergic rhinitis: definition, epidemiology, pathophysiology, detection, and diagnosis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;108:S2-8.
6. Sly RM. Changing prevalence of allergic rhinitis and asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999;82:233-48.
7. Meltzer EO. The prevalence and economic impact of allergic rhinitis in the United States. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;99:805-28.
8. Ray NF, Baraniuk JN, Thamer M, et al. Direct expenditures for the treatment of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis in 1996, including the contributions of related airway illnesses. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;103:401-7.
9. Mannino DM, Homa DM, Pertowski CA, et al. Surveillance for asthma - United States, 1960-1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1998;47:1-27.
10. Weiss KB, Sullivan SD, Lyttle CS. Trends in the cost of illness for asthma in the United States, 1985-1994. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000;106:493-9.
11. Leynaert B, Neukirch F, Demoly P, Bousquet J. Epidemiologic evidence for asthma and rhinitis comorbidity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000;106:S201-205.
12. Pariente PD, LePen C, Los F, Bousquet J. Quality-of-life outcomes and the use of antihistamines in a French national population-based sample of patients with perennial rhinitis. Pharmacoeconomics 1997;12:585-95.
13. Settipane RJ, Hagy GW, Settipane GA. Long-term risk factors for developing asthma and allergic rhinitis: A 23-year follow-up study of college students. Allergy Proc 1994;15:21-5.
14. Sibbald B, Rink E. Epidemiology of seasonal and perennial rhinitis: Clinical presentation and medical history. Thorax 1991;46:895-901.
15. Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Halonen M, Morgan W, Taussig LM. Epidemiology of physician-diagnosed allergic rhinitis in childhood. Pediatrics 1994;94:895-901.
16. Peat JK, Salome CM, Woolcock AJ. Longitudinal changes in atopy during a 4-year period: Relation to bronchial hyperresponsiveness and respiratory symptoms in a population sample of Australian schoolchildren. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1990;85:65-74.
17. Jelks M. Allergy Plants that Cause Sneezing and Wheezing. Tampa, FL: Worldwide Publications; 1986.
18. Lewis WH, Vinay P, Zenger VE. Airborne and Allergic Pollen of North America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1983.
19. Naclerio R, Solomon W. Rhinitis and inhalant allergens. JAMA 1997;278:1842-8.
20. Platts-Mills TAE, Hayden ML, Chapman MD, Wilkins SR. Seasonal variation in dust mite and grass pollen allergens in dust from the houses of patients with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1987;79:781-91.
21. Sicherer SH, Eggleston PA. In: Lieberman P, Anderson JA, editors. Environmental Allergens. Totowa (NJ): Humana Press; 1997. p. 37-46.
22. Fokkens WJ, Broekhuis-Fluitsma DM, Rijntjes E, Vroom TM, Hoefsmit EC. Langerhans cells in nasal mucosa of patients with grass pollen allergy. Immunobiology 1991;182:135-42.
23. Maurer D, Fiebiger S, Ebner C, et al. Peripheral blood dendritic cells express FcεRI as a complex composed of FcεRIα- and FcεRIγ-chains and can use this receptor for IgE-mediated allergen presentation. J Immunol 1996;157:607-16.
24. Fokkens WJ, Holm AF, Rijntjes E, Mulder PG, Vroom TM. Characterization and quantification of cellular infiltrates in nasal mucosa of patients with grass pollen allergy, non-allergic patients with nasal polyps and controls. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1990;93:66-72.
25. Holt PG, Oliver J, Bilyk N, et al. Downregulation of the antigen presenting cell function(s) of pulmonary dendritic cells in vivo by resident alveolar macrophages. J Exp Med 1993;177: 397-407.
26. Thepen T, McMenamin C, Girn B, Kraal G, Holt PG. Regulation of IgE production in presensitized animals: In vivo elimination of alveolar macrophages preferentially increases IgE responses to inhaled allergen. Clin Exp Allergy 1992;22:1107-14.
27. Thepen T, McMenamin C, Oliver J, Kraal G, Holt PG. Regulation of immune response to inhaled antigen by alveolar macrophages: Differential effects of in vivo alveolar macrophage elimination on the induction of tolerance vs. immunity. Eur J Immunol 1991;21:2845-50.
28. Saeki H, Moore AM, Brown MJ, Hwang ST. Cutting edge: secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine (SLC) and CC chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) participate in the emigration pathway of mature dendritic cells from the skin to regional lymph nodes. J Immunol 1999;162:2472-5.
29. Kuper CF, Koornstra PJ, Hameleers DM, et al. The role of nasopharyngeal lymphoid tissue. Immunol Today 1992;13:219-24.
30. Hellings P, Jorissen M, Ceuppens JL. The Waldeyer's ring. Acta Otohinolaryngol Belg 2000;54:237-41.
31. Vinke JG, Fokken WJ. The role of the adenoid in allergic sensitisation. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 1999;49(Suppl):S145-9.
32. Fokkens WJ, Vinke JG, De Jong SS, Bogaert DP, Kleinjan A, Eichhorn E. Differences in cellular infiltrates in the adenoid of allergic children compared with age- and gender-matched controls. Clin Exp Allergy 1998;28:187-95.
33. Okano M, Azuma M, Yoshino T, et al. Differential role of CD80 and CD86 molecules in the induction and the effector phases of allergic rhinitis in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;164:1501-7.
34. Tsuyuki S, Tsuyuki J, Einsle K, Kopf M, Coyle AJ. Costimulation through B7-2 (CD86) is required for the induction of a lung mucosal T helper cell 2 (TH2) immune response and altered airway responsiveness. J Exp Med 1997;185:1671-9.
35. White M. Mediators of inflammation and the inflammatory process. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;103:S378-81.
36. Maurer D, Ebner C, Reininger B, et al. The high affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) mediates IgE-dependent allergen presentation. J Immunol 1995;154:6285-90.
37. Fokkens WJ, Godthelp T, Holm AF, Vroom TM, Rijntjes E. Cellular aspects of nasal immunology. Rhinol Suppl 1992;14:32-6.
38. Fokkens WJ, Vroom TM, Rijntjes E, Mulder PG. Fluctuation of the number of CD-1(T6)positive dendritic cells, presumably Langerhans cells, in the nasal mucosa of patients with an isolated grass-pollen allergy before, during, and after the grass-pollen season. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989;84:39-43.
39. Holtzman MJ, Morton JD, Shornick LP, et al. Immunity, inflammation, and remodeling in the airway epithelial barrier: The epithelial-viral-allergic paradigm. Physiol Rev 2002;82:19-46.
40. von Mutius E, Weiland SK, Fritzsch C, Duhme H, Keil U. Increasing prevalence of hay fever and atopy among children in Leipzig, East Germany. Lancet 1998;19:113-6.
41. Castro M, Walter MJ, Chaplin DD, Holtzman MJ. Could asthma worsen by stimulating the T helper type 1 (Th1) response? Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2000;22:143-6.
42. Holtzman MJ, Castro M, Look DC, O'Sullivan M, Walter MJ. Regulation of epithelial-leukocyte interaction and epithelial immune-response genes. In: Busse WW, Holgate ST, editors. Asthma and rhinitis. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Scientific; 2000. p. 784-800.
43. Holtzman MJ, Sampath D, Castro M, Look DC, Jayaraman S. The one-two of T helper cells: Does interferon-γ knockout the Th2 hypothesis for asthma? Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1996;14:316-8.
44. Randolph DA, Stephens R, Carruthers CJL, Chaplin DD. Cooperation between Th1 and Th2 cells in a murine model of eosinophilic airway inflammation. J Clin Invest 1999;104:1021-9.
45. Poston RN, Chanez P, Lacoste JY, Litchfield T, Lee TH, Bousquet J. Immunohistochemical characterization of the cellular infiltration in asthmatic bronchi. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;145: 918-21.
46. Ying S, Durham SR, Corrigan CJ, Hamid Q, Kay AB. Phenotype of cells expressing mRNA for TH2-type (interleukin 4 and interleukin 5) and TH1-type (interleukin 2 and interferon γ) cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage and bronchial biopsies from atopic asthmatic and normal control subjects. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1995;12:477-87.
47. Coyle AJ, Le Gros G, Bertrand C, et al. Interleukin-4 is required for the induction of lung Th2 mucosal immunity. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1995;13:54-9.
48. Grunig G, Warnock M, Wakil AE, et al. Requirement for IL-13 independently of IL-4 in experimental asthma. Science 1998;282:2261-3.
49. Webb DC, McKenzie AN, Koskinen AM, Yang M, Mattes J, Foster PS. Integrated signals between IL-13, IL-4, and IL-5 regulate airways hyperreactivity. J Immunol 2000;165:108-13.
50. Wills-Karp M, Luyimbazi J, Xu X, et al. Interleukin-13: central mediator of allergic asthma. Science 1998;282:2258-61.
51. Gavett SH, O'Hearn DJ, Li X, Huang S-K, Finkelman FD, Wills-Karp M. Interleukin 12 inhibits antigen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation, and Th2 cytokine expression in mice. J Exp Med 1995;182:1527-36.
52. Lack G, Bradley KL, Hamelmann E, et al. Nebulized IFN-γ inhibits the development of secondary allergic responses in mice. J Immunol 1996;157:1432-9.
53. Burrows B, Martinez FD, Halonen M, Barbee RA, Cline MG. Association of asthma with serum IgE levels and skin-test reactivity to allergens. N Engl J Med 1989;320:271-7.
54. Ober C, Moffatt MF. Contributing factors to the pathobiology: the genetics of asthma. Clin Chest Med 2000;21:245-61.
55. Bentley A, Jacobson M, Cumberworth V, et al. Immunohistology of the nasal mucosa in seasonal allergic rhinitis: Increases in activated eosinophils and epithelial mast cells. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;89:877-83.
56. Broide DH, Gleich GJ, Cuomo AJ, et al. Evidence of ongoing mast cell and eosinophil activation in symptomatic asthma airway. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1991;88:637-48.
57. Bandeira-Melo C, Herbst A, Weller PF. Eotaxins: Contributing to the diversity of eosinophil recruitment and activation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2001;24:653-7.
58. Willliams CMM, Galli SJ. Mast cells can amplify airway reactivity and features of chronic inflammation in an asthma model in mice. J Exp Med 2000;192:455-62.
59. Coyle AJ, Erard F, Bertrand C, Walti S, Pircher H, Le Gros G. Virus-specific CD8+ cells can switch to interleukin 5 production and induce airway eosinophilia. J Exp Med 1995;181: 1229-33.
60. Johnson TR, Johnson JE, Roberts SR, Wertz GW, Parker RA, Graham BS. Priming with secreted glycoprotein G of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) augments interleukin-5 production and tissue eosinophilia after RSV challenge. J Virol 1998;72:2871-80.
61. Srikiatkhachorn A, Braciale TJ. Virus-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes downregulate T helper cell type 2 cytokine secretion and pulmonary eosinophila during experimental murine respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Exp Med 1997;186:421-32.
62. Hansen G, Berry G, DeKruyff R, Umetsu D. Allergen-specific Th1 cells fail to counterbalance Th2 cell-induced airway hyperreactivity but cause severe airway inflammation. J Clin Invest 1999;103:175-83.
63. Hogan SP, Mould A, Kikutani H, Ramsay AJ, Foster PS. Aeroallergen-induced eosinophilic inflammation, lung damage, and airways hyperreactivity in mice can occur independently of IL4 and allergen-specific immunoglobulins. J Clin Invest 1997;99:1329-39.
64. Melhop PD, van de Rijn M, Goldberg AB, et al. Allergen-induced bronchial hyperreactivity and eosinophilic inflammation occur in the absence of IgE in a mouse model of asthma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997;94:1344-9.
65. Koga T, Sardina E, Tidwell RM, Pelletier MR, Look DC, Holtzman MJ. Virus-inducible expression of a host chemokine gene relies on replication-linked mRNA stabilization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999;96:5680-5.
66. Look DC, Keller BT, Rapp SR, Holtzman MJ. Selective induction of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 by interferon-γ in human airway epithelial cells. Am J Physiol 1992;263:L79-87.
67. Look DC, Pelletier MR, Holtzman MJ. Selective interaction of a subset of interferon-γ response element binding proteins with the intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) gene promoter controls the pattern of expression on epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 1994;269:8952-8.
68. Look DC, Pelletier MR, Tidwell RM, Roswit WT, Holtzman MJ. Stat1 depends on transcriptional synergy with Sp1. J Biol Chem 1995;270:30264-7.
69. Look DC, Roswit WT, Frick AG, et al. Direct suppression of Stat1 function during adenoviral infection. Immunity 1998;9:871-80.
70. Nakajima S, Look DC, Roswit WT, Bragdon MJ, Holtzman MJ. Selective differences in vascular endothelial- vs. airway epithelial-T cell adhesion mechanisms. Am J Physiol 1994;267: L422-32.
71. + γδ T cell adherence and tissue retention. J Immunol 1995;155:1117-31.
72. Sampath D, Castro M, Look DC, Holtzman MJ. Constitutive activation of an epithelial signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat1) pathway in asthma. J Clin Invest 1999;103: 1353-61.
73. Walter MJ, Kajiwara N, Karanja P, Castro M, Holtzman MJ. IL-12 p40 production by barrier epithelial cells during airway inflammation. J Exp Med 2001;193:339-52.
74. Taguchi M, Sampath D, Koga T, et al. Patterns for RANTES secretion and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression mediate transepithelial T cell traffic based on analyses in vitro and in vivo. J Exp Med 1998;187:1927-40.
75. Collins PL, Chanock RM, McIntosh K. Parainfluenza viruses. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, editors. Fields virology. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 1996. p. 1205-41.
76. Domachowske JB, Rosenberg HF. Respiratory syncytial virus infection: Immune response, immunopathogenesis, and treatment. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999;12:298-309.
77. Pattemore PK, Johnston SL, Bardin PG. Viruses as precipitants of asthma symptoms. I. Epidemiology. Clin Exp Allergy 1992;22:325-36.
78. Sigurs N, Bjarnason R, Sigurbergsson F, Kjellman B, Bjorksten B. Asthma and immunoglobulin E antibodies after respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: A prospective cohort study with matched controls. Pediatrics 1995;95:500-5.
79. Stein RT, Sherrill D, Morgan WJ, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus in early life and risk of wheeze and allergy by age 13 years. Lancet 1999;345:541-5.
80. Ahmed R, Morrison LA, Knipe DM. Persistence of viruses. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, editors. Fields Virology. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 1996. p. 219-49.
81. Casale TB, Lazarus SC. Immunobiology of asthma and rhinitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:1778-87.
82. Kao NL. Compendium of position statements, guidelines, and consensus statements on allergic and immunological diseases. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2001;87(suppl):1-31.
83. Busse WW, Lemanske RFJ. Asthma. N Engl J Med 2001;344:350-62.
84. Frieri M. Treatment update for allergic rhinitis. Allergy Asthma Proc 2000;21:377-9.
85. Meltzer EO, Ehrlich PM. A step approach to the clinical management of allergic rhinitis: prescription and over-the-counter therapeutic reference summary. Manag Care Interface 1999;12:70-7.
86. Day J. Pros and cons of the use of antihistamines in managing allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;103(Suppl):S395-9.
87. Geha RS, Meltzer EO. Desloratadine: a new, nonsedating, oral antihistamine. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;107:751-62.
88. 1 Receptor Antagonists in Allergic Disease. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1996. p. 357-81.
89. Kemp JP, Bahna SL, Chervinsky P. A comparison of loratadine, a new nonsedating antihistamine, with clemastine and placebo in patients with fall seasonal allergic rhinitis. Am J Rhinol 1987;1:151-4.
90. La Force C. Dockhom RJ, Prenner BM, Chu TJ, Kraemer MJ, Widlitz MD. Safety and efficacy of azelastine nasal spray (Astelin NS) for seasonal allergic rhinitis: A 4-week comparative multicenter trial. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1996;76:181-8.
91. Slater JW, Zechnich AD, Haxby DG. Second-generation antihistamines: a comparative review. Drugs 1999;57:31-47.
92. Altounyan REC. Review of clinical activity and mode of action of sodium cromoglycate. Clin Allergy 1980;10:481-9.
93. 4-receptor antagonist, ICI 204,219, relieves symptoms of acute seasonal allergic rhinitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:1734-9.
94. Knorr B, Matz J, Bernstein JA. Montelukast for chronic asthma in 6 to 14-year-old children: A randomized double-blind trial. JAMA 1998;279:1181-6.
95. Meltzer EO. Role for cysteinyl leukotriene receptor antagonist therapy in asthma and their potential role in allergic rhinitis based on the concept of "one linked airway disease". Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2000;84:176-87.
96. Malmstrom K, Meltzer EO, Prenner B, et al. Effects of montelukast (a leukotriene receptor antagonist), loratadine, montelukast + loratadine and placebo in seasonal allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis [0abstract]. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101(Suppl):S97.
97. Roquet A, Dahlen B, Kumlin M, et al. Combined antagonism of leukotrienes and histamine produces predominant inhibition of allergen-induced early and late phase airway obstruction in asthmatics. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:1856-63.
98. Siegel SC, Katz R, Rachelefsky G. Multicenter study of beclomethasone diproprionate in adults with seasonal allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1982;69:345-53.
99. Meltzer EO, Tyrell RJ, Rich D, Wood CC. A pharmacologic continuum in the treatment of rhinorrhea: The clinician as economist. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995;95:1147-52.
100. Corren J. Intranasal corticosteroids for allergic rhinitis: How do different agents compare? J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;104(Suppl):S144-9.
101. Lumry WR. A review of the preclinical and clinical data of newer intranasal steroids used in the treatment of allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;104:150-8.
102. Durham SR, Walker SM, Varga E-M, et al. Long-term clinical efficacy of grass-pollen immunotherapy. N Engl J Med 1999;341:468-75.
103. Meltzer EO, Tyrell RJ, Rich D, Wood CC. A pharmacologic continuum in the treatment of rhinorrhea: The clinician as economist. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1994;95:1147-52.
104. Thompson AK, Juniper E, Meltzer EO. Quality of life in patients with allergic rhinitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2000;85:338-48.
105. Ferreira F, Hirtenlehner K, Jilek A, et al. Dissection of immunoglobulin E and T lymphocyte reactivity of isoforms of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1: Potential use of hypoallergenic isoforms for immunotherapy. J Exp Med 1996;183:599-609.
106. Breiteneder H, Ferreira F, Hoffmann-Sommergruber K, et al. Four recombinant isoforms of Cor a I, the major allergen of hazel pollen, show different IgE-binding properties. Eur J Biochem 1993;212:355-62.
107. Norman PS, Ohman JL Jr, Long AA, et al. Treatment of cat allergy with T-cell reactive peptides. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:1623-8.
108. Haselden BM, Kay AB, Larche M. Immunoglobulin E-independent major histocompatibility complex-restricted T cell peptide epitope-induced late asthmatic reactions. J Exp Med 1999;189:1885-94.
109. Texier C, Pouvelle S, Busson M, et al. HLA-DR restricted peptide candidates for bee venom immunotherapy. J Immunol 2000;164:3177-84.
110. Hasan UA, Abai AM, Harper DR, Wren BW, Morrow WJW. Nucleic acid immunization: Concepts and techniques associated with third generation vaccines. J Immunol Methods 1999;229:1-22.
111. Tighe H, Corr M, Roman M, Raz E. Gene vaccination: Plasmid DNA is more than just a blueprint. Immunol Today 1998;19:89-97.
112. Allsopp CE, Plebanski M, Gilbert S, et al. Comparison of numerous delivery systems for the induction of cytotoxic T lymphocytes by immunization. Eur J Immunol 1996;26:1951-9.
113. Roy K, Mao HQ, Huang SK, Leong KW. Oral gene delivery with chitosan-DNA nanoparticles generates immunologic protection in a murine model of peanut allergy. Nat Med 1999;5:387-93.
114. Broide D, Raz E. DNA-based immunization for asthma. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 1999;118: 453-6.
115. Kline JN, Waldschmidt TJ, Businga TR, et al. Modulation of airway inflammation by CpG oligodeoxynucleotides in a murine model of asthma. J Immunol 1998;160:2555-9.
116. Metzger WJ, Nyce JW. Oligonucleotide therapy of allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;104:260-6.
117. Carson DA, Raz E. Oligonucleotide adjuvants for T helper 1 (Th 1)-specific vaccination. J Exp Med 1997;186:1621-2.
118. Chu RS, Targoni OS, Krieg AM, Legmann PV, Harding CV. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides act as adjuvants that switch on T helper 1 (Th1) immunity. J Exp Med 1997;186:1623-31.
119. MacGlashan DW, Bochner BS, Adelman DC, et al. Down-regulation of FcεRI expression on human basophils during an in vivo treatment of atopic patients with anti-IgE antibody. J Immunol 1997;158:1438-45.
120. Casale TB, Bernstein IL, Busse WW, et al. Use of an anti-IgE humanized monoclonal antibody in ragweed-induced allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;100:110-21.
121. Milgrom H, Fick Jr. RB, Su JQ, et al. Treatment of allergic asthma with monoclonal anti-IgE antibody. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1966-73.
122. Boulet L-P, Chapman KR, Cote J, et al. Inhibitory effects of an anti-IgE antibody E25 on allergen-induced early asthmatic response. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155: 1835-40.
123. Fahy JV, Fleming HE, Wong HH, et al. The effect of an anti-IgE monoclonal antibody on the early- and late-phase responses to allergen inhalation in asthmatic subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:1828-34.
124. Borish LC, Nelson HS, Lanz MJ, et al. Interleukin-4 receptor in moderate atopic asthma: a phase I/II randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160: 1816-23.
125. Ryan JJ. Interleukin-4 and its receptor: Essential mediators of the allergic response. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;99:1-5.
126. Abramson MJ, Puy RM, Weiner JJ. Is allergen immunotherapy effective in asthma? A metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:969-74.
127. Adkinson Jr. NF, Eggleston PA, Eney D, et al. A controlled trial ofimmunotherapy for asthma in allergic children. N Engl J Med 1997;336:324-31.
128. Creticos P, Reed CE, Norman PS, et al. Ragweed immunotherapy in adult asthma. N Engl J Med 1996;334:501-6.
129. Mauser PJ, Pitman AM, Fernandez X, et al. Effects of an antibody to interleukin-5 in a monkey model of asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152:467-72.
130. Leckie MJ, ten Brinke A, Khan J, et al. Effects of an interleukin-5 blocking monoclonal antibody on eosinophils, airway hyper-responsiveness, and the late asthmatic response. Lancet 2001;356:2144-8.
131. Nakanishi A, Morita S, Iwashita H, et al. Role of gob-5 in mucus overproduction and airway hyperresponsiveness in asthma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001;98:5175-80.
132. Zhou Y, Dong Q, Louahed J, et al. Characterization of a calcium-activated chloride channel as a shared target of Th2 cytokine pathways and its potential involvement in asthma. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2001;25:486-91.
133. Germer S, Holland MJ, Higuchi R. High-throughput SNP allele-frequency determination in pooled DNA samples by kinetic PCR. Genome Res 2000;10:258-66.
134. +-Cl- cotransporter (NKCCl) in asthmatic subjects. Genome Res 2001;11:1473-83.
135. Walter MJ, Mocton JD, Kajiwaca N, Agapov E, Holtzman MJ. Viral induction of a chronic asthma phenotype and genetic segregation from the acute response. J Clin Invest 2002;110: 165-75.