Latent tuberculosis: Models, mechanisms, and novel prospects for eradication

Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases

Volumn 13, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 263-272

  Riska, Paul F ^a,b   Carleton, Stephen ^a  

^a STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^b Box 56 ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BCG VACCINE; ISONIAZID;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; BACTERIAL CELL WALL; BACTERIAL GROWTH; BCG VACCINATION; HUMAN; LATENT TUBERCULOSIS; MOUSE; NONHUMAN; PERSISTENT INFECTION; REVIEW; STRESS; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION; TUBERCULOSIS;

EID: 0036820737     PISSN: 10451870     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1053/spid.2002.127198     Document Type: Review

References (91)

1. Dye C, Scheele S, Dolin P, et al: Consensus statement. Global burden of tuberculosis: Estimated incidence, prevalence, and mortality by country. WHO Global Surveillance and Monitoring Project. JAMA 282:677-686, 1999
2. Styblo K: Recent advances in epidemiological research in tuberculosis. Adv Tuberc Res 20:1-63, 1980
3. Bass JB, Jr., Farer LS, Hopewell PC, et al: Treatment of tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in adults and children. American Thoracic Society and The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:1359-1374, 1994
4. Stead WW: Pathogenesis of a first episode of chronic pulmonary tuberculosis in man: Recrudescence of residuals of the primary infection or exogenous reinfection? Am Rev Respir Dis 95:729-745, 1967
5. Medlar EM: The behavior of pulmonary tuberculous lesions; A pathological study. Am Rev Tuberc 71:1-244, 1955
6. Robertson H: The persistence of tuberculous infections. Am J Pathol 9:711-718, 1933
7. Opie E, Aronson J: Tubercle bacilli in latent tuberculous lesions and in lung tissue without tuberculous lesions. Arch Pathol Lab Med 4:1-21, 1927
8. American Trudeau Society: Report of panel discussion on survival and revival of tubercle bacilli in healed tuberculous lesions. Am Rev Tuberc 68:477-495, 1953
9. Hernandez-Pando R, Jeyanathan M, Mengistu G, et al: Persistence of DNA from Mycobacterium tuberculosis in superficially normal lung tissue during latent infection. Lancet 356:2133-2138, 2000
10. Wiegeshaus E, Balasubramanian V, Smith DW: Immunity to tuberculosis from the perspective of pathogenesis. Infect Immun 57:3671-3676, 1989
11. Comstock GW, Edwards LB, Livesay VT: Tuberculosis morbidity in the U.S. Navy: Its distribution and decline. Am Rev Respir Dis 110:572-580, 1974
12. Menzies D: Interpretation of repeated tuberculin tests. Boosting, conversion, and reversion. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 159:15-21, 1999
13. Mazurek GH, LoBue PA, Daley CL, et al: Comparison of a whole-blood interferon gamma assay with tuberculin skin testing for detecting latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. JAMA 286:1740-1747, 2001
14. Andersen P, Munk ME, Pollock JM, et al: Specific immune-based diagnosis of tuberculosis. Lancet 356:1099-1104, 2000
15. Pesanti EL: The negative tuberculin test. Tuberculin, HIV, and anergy panels. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:1699-1709, 1994
16. Menzies R, Vissandjee B: Effect of bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination on tuberculin reactivity. Am Rev Respir Dis 145:621-625, 1992
17. American Thoracic Society, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161: S221-S247, 2000
18. Small PM, Shafer RW, Hopewell PC, et al: Exogenous reinfection with multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in patients with advanced HIV infection. N Engl J Med 328:1137-1144, 1993
19. Canetti G, Gay P, Le Lirzin M: Trends in the prevalence of primary drug resistance in pulmonary tuberculosis in France from 1962 to 1970: A national survey. Tubercle 53:57-83, 1972
20. Small PM, Hopewell PC, Singh SP, et al: The epidemiology of tuberculosis in San Francisco. A population-based study using conventional and molecular methods. N Engl J Med 330:1703-1709, 1994
21. Alland D, Kalkut GE, Moss AR, et al: Transmission of tuberculosis in New York City. An analysis by DNA fingerprinting and conventional epidemiologic methods. N Engl J Med 330:1710-1716, 1994
22. van Rie A, Warren R, Richardson M, et al: Exogenous reinfection as a cause of recurrent tuberculosis after curative treatment. N Engl J Med 341:1174-1179, 1999
23. Colditz GA, Berkey CS, Mosteller F, et al: The efficacy of bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccination of newborns and infants in the prevention of tuberculosis: Meta-analyses of the published literature. Pediatrics 96:29-35, 1995
24. Orme I, Collins F: Mouse model of tuberculosis, in Bloom BR (ed): Tuberculosis: Pathogenesis, Protection and Control. Washington, DC, ASM Press, 1994, pp 113-134
25. Colditz GA, Brewer TF, Berkey CS, et al: Efficacy of BCG vaccine in the prevention of tuberculosis. Meta-analysis of the published literature. JAMA 271:698-702, 1994
26. Lowrie DB, Tascon RE, Bonato VL, et al: Therapy of tuberculosis in mice by DNA vaccination. Nature 400:269-271, 1999
27. Rees R, D'Arcy Hart P: Analysis of the host-parasite equilibrium in chronic murine tuberculosis by total and viable bacillary counts. Br J Exp Pathol 42:83-88, 1961
28. McCune RM, Feldmann FM, McDermott W: Microbial persistence. II. Characteristics of the sterile state of tubercle bacilli. J Exp Med 123:469-486, 1966
29. Scanga CA, Mohan VP, Joseph H, et al: Reactivation of latent tuberculosis: Variations on the Cornell murine model. Infect Immun 67:4531-4538, 1999
30. de Wit D, Wootton M, Dhillon J, et al: The bacterial DNA content of mouse organs in the Cornell model of dormant tuberculosis. Tuberc Lung Dis 76:555-562, 1995
31. Hu Y, Mangan JA, Dhillon J, et al: Detection of mRNA transcripts and active transcription in persistent mycobacterium tuberculosis induced by exposure to rifampin or pyrazinamide. J Bacteriol 182:6358-6365, 2000
32. Flynn JL, Chan J: Immunology of tuberculosis. Annu Rev Immunol 19:93-129, 2001
33. Murray PJ: Defining the requirements for immunological control of mycobacterial infections. Trends Microbiol 7:366-372, 1999
34. Nau GJ, Liaw L, Chupp GL, et al: Attenuated host resistance against Mycobacterium bovis BCG infection in mice lacking osteopontin. Infect Immun 67:4223-4230, 1999
35. Manca C, Tsenova L, Bergtold A, et al: Virulence of a Myobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolate in mice is determined by failure to induce Th1 type immunity and is associated with induction of IFN-alpha/beta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:5752-5757, 2001
36. Marshall BG, Wangoo A, O'Gaora P, et al: Enhanced antimycobacterial response to recombinant Mycobacterium bovis BCG expressing latency-associated peptide. Infect Immun 69:6676-6682, 2001
37. Condos R, Rom WN, Weiden M: Lung-specific immune response in tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 4:S11-S17, 2000
38. Nicholson S, Bonecini-Almeida MG, Silva JR, et al: Inducible nitric oxide synthase in pulmonary alveolar macrophages from patients with tuberculosis. J Exp Med 183:2293-2302, 1996
39. Keane J, Gershon S, Wise RP, et al: Tuberculosis associated with infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor alpha-neutralizing agent. N Engl J Med 345:1098-1104, 2001
40. Canetti G: The Tubercle Bacillus in the Pulmonary Lesion of Man. New York, NY, Springer, 1955
41. Moreira AL, Wang J, Tsenova-Berkova L, et al: Sequestration of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in tight vacuoles in vivo in lung macrophages of mice infected by the respiratory route. Infect Immun 65:305-308, 1997
42. Fenton MJ, Vermeulen MW: Immunopathology of tuberculosis: Roles of macrophages and monocytes. Infect Immun 64:683-690, 1996
43. O'Brien L, Roberts B, Andrew PW: In vitro interaction of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and macrophages: Activation of anti-mycobacterial activity of macrophages and mechanisms of anti-mycobacterial activity. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 215:97-130, 1996
44. Molloy A, Laochumroonvorapong P, Kaplan G: Apoptosis, but not necrosis, of infected monocytes is coupled with killing of intracellular bacillus Calmette-Guerin. J Exp Med 180:1499-1509, 1994
45. Boechat N, Bouchonnet F, Bonay M, et al: Culture at high density improves the ability of human macrophages to control mycobacterial growth. J Immunol 166:6203-6211, 2001
46. Rockett KA, Brookes R, Udalova I, et al: 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces nitric oxide synthase and suppresses growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a human macrophage-like cell line. Infect Immun 66:5314-5321, 1998
47. Meylan PR, Richman DD, Kornbluth RS: Reduced intracellular growth of mycobacteria in human macrophages cultivated at physiologic oxygen pressure. Am Rev Respir Dis 145:947-953, 1992
48. Yoneda T, Ellner JJ: CD4 (+) T cell and natural killer cell-dependent killing of mycobacterium tuberculosis by human monocytes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 138:395-403, 1998
49. Graham JE, Clark-Curtiss JE: Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis RNAs synthesized in response to phagocytosis by human macrophages by selective capture of transcribed sequences (SCOTS). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:11554-11559, 1999
50. Monahan IM, Betts J, Banerjee DK, et al: Differential expression of mycobacterial proteins following phagocytosis by macrophages. Microbiology. 147:459-471, 2001
51. Betts JC, Lukey PT, Robb LC, et al: Evaluation of a nutrient starvation model of Mycobacterium tuberculosis persistence by gene and protein expression profiling. Mol Microbiol 43:717-731, 2002
52. Wayne LG, Hayes LG: An in vitro model for sequential study of shiftdown of mycobacterium tuberculosis through two stages of nonreplicating persistence. Infect Immun 64:2062-2069, 1996
53. Sherman DR, Voskuil M, Schnappinger D, et al: Regulation of the mycobacterium tuberculosis hypoxic response gene encoding alpha-crystallin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:7534-7539, 2001
54. Garbe TR, Hibler NS, Deretic V: Response to reactive nitrogen intermediates in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Induction of the 16-kilodalton alpha-crystallin homolog by exposure to nitric oxide donors. Infect Immun 67:460-465, 1999
55. DeMaio J, Zhang Y, Ko C, et al: A stationary-phase stress-response sigma factor from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:2790-2794, 1996
56. Florczyk MA, McCue LA, Stack RF, et al: Identification and characterization of mycobacterial proteins differentially expressed under standing and shaking culture conditions, including Rv2623 from a novel class of putative ATP-binding proteins. Infect Immun 69:5777-5785, 2001
57. Hu YM, Butcher PD, Sole K, et al: Protein synthesis is shutdown in dormant Myobacterium tuberculosis and is reversed by oxygen or heat shock. FEMS Microbiol Lett 158:139-145, 1998
58. Dhillon J, Allen BW, Hu YM, et al: Metronidazole has no antibacterial effect in Cornell model murine tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2:736-742, 1998
59. Stover CK, Warrener P, VanDevanter DR, et al: A small-molecule nitroimidazopyran drug candidate for the treatment of tuberculosis. Nature 405:962-966, 2000
60. Chan K, Knaak T, Satkamp L, et al: Complex pattern of Mycobacterium marinum gene expression during long-term granulomatous infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:3920-3925, 2002
61. Bekierkunst A: Biology of the mycobacterioses. Tubercle bacilli grown in vivo. Ann N Y Acad Sci 154:79-87, 1968
62. Segal W: Growth dynamics of in vivo and in vitro grown mycobacterial pathogens, in Kubica GP, Wayne LG (eds): The Mycobacteria - A Sourcebook. New York, NY, Marcel Dekker, 1984, pp 547-573
63. Bekierkunst A, Levij IS, Yarkoni E, et al: Granuloma formation induced in mice by chemically defined mycobacterial fractions. J Bacteriol 100:95-102, 1969
64. McKinney JD, Honer zu BK, Munoz-Elias EJ, et al: Persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in macrophages and mice requires the glyoxylate shunt enzyme isocitrate lyase. Nature 406:735-738, 2000
65. Wallace JG: The heat resistance of tubercle bacilli in the lungs of infected mice. Am Rev Respir Dis 83:866-871, 1961
66. Cunningham AF, Spreadbury CL: Mycobacterial stationary phase induced by low oxygen tension: Cell wall thickening and localization of the 16-kilodalton alpha-crystallin homolog. J Bacteriol 180:801-808, 1998
67. Nyka W, O'Neill EF: A new approach to the study of non-acid-fast mycobacteria. Ann N Y Acad Sci 174:862-871, 1970
68. Khomenko AG: The variability of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in patients with cavitary pulmonary tuberculosis in the course of chemotherapy. Tubercle 68:243-253, 1987
69. Chandrasekhar S, Ratnam S: Studies on cell-wall deficient non-acid fast variants of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberc Lung Dis 73:273-279, 1992
70. Nyka W: Studies on the effect of starvation on mycobacteria. Infect Immun 9:843-850, 1974
71. Biketov S, Mukamolova GV, Potapov V, et al: Culturability of Mycobacterium tuberculosis cells isolated from murine macrophages: A bacterial growth factor promotes recovery. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 29:233-240, 2000
72. Shleeva MO, Bagramyan K, Telkov MV, et al: Formation and resuscitation of 'non-culturable' cells ofRhodococcus rhodochrous and Mycobacterium tuberculosis in prolonged stationary phase. Microbiology 148:1581-1591, 2002
73. Cole ST, Brosch R, Parkhill J, et al: Deciphering the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the complete genome sequence. Nature 393:537-544, 1998
74. Zahrt TC, Deretic V: Mycobacterium tuberculosis signal transduction system required for persistent infections. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:12706-12711, 2001
75. LaCelle M, Kumano M, Kurita K, et al: Oxygen-controlled regulation of the flavohemoglobin gene in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 178:3803-3808, 1996
76. Hu Y, Butcher PD, Mangan JA, et al: Regulation of hmp gene transcription in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Effects of oxygen limitation and nitrosative and oxidative stress. J Bacteriol 181:3486-3493, 1999
77. Couture M, Yeh SR, Wittenberg BA, et al: A cooperative oxygen-binding hemoglobin from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:11223-11228, 1999
78. Manganelli R, Dubnau E, Tyagi S, et al: Differential expression of 10 sigma factor genes in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mol Microbiol 31:715-724, 1999
79. Manganelli R, Voskuil MI, Schoolnik GK, et al: The Mycobacterium tuberculosis ECF sigma factor sigmaE: Role in global gene expression and survival in macrophages. Mol Microbiol 41:423-437, 2001
80. Michele TM, Ko C, Bishai WR: Exposure to antibiotics induces expression of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis sigF gene: Implications for chemotherapy against mycobacterial persistors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43:218-225, 1999
81. Chen P, Ruiz RE, Li Q, et al: Construction and characterization of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis mutant lacking the alternate sigma factor gene, sigF. Infect Immun 68:5575-5580, 2000
82. Yuan Y, Crane DD, Simpson RM, et al: The 16-kDa alpha-crystallin (Acr) protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is required for growth in macrophages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:9578-9583, 1998
83. Yuan Y, Crane DD, Barry CE III: Stationary phase-associated protein expression in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Function of the mycobacterial alpha-crystallin homolog. J Bacteriol 178:4484-4492, 1996
84. Primm TP, Andersen SJ, Mizrahi V, et al: The stringent response of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is required for long-term survival. J Bacteriol 182:4889-4898, 2000
85. Wayne LG, Lin KY: Glyoxylate metabolism and adaptation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to survival under anaerobic conditions. Infect Immun 37:1042-1049, 1982
86. Graham S, Das GK, Hidvegi RJ, et al: Chest radiograph abnormalities associated with tuberculosis: Reproducibility and yield of active cases. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 6:137-142, 2002
87. Lorenz MC, Fink GR: The glyoxylate cycle is required for fungal virulence. Nature 412:83-86, 2001
88. Wayne LG, Hayes LG: Nitrate reduction as a marker for hypoxic shiftdown of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberc Lung Dis 79:127-132, 1998
89. Fritz C, Maass S, Kreft A, et al: Dependence of Mycobacterium bovis BCG on anaerobic nitrate reductase for persistence is tissue specific. Infect Immun 70:286-291, 2002
90. Glickman MS, Cox JS, Jacobs WR Jr.: A novel mycolic acid cy clopropane synthetase is required for cording, persistence, and virulence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mol Cell 5:717-727, 2000
91. Stewart GR, Snewin VA, Walzl G, et al: Overexpression of heat-shock proteins reduces survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the chronic phase of infection. Nat Med 7:732-737, 2001