Regulation of enzymes of the urea cycle and arginine metabolism

Annual Review of Nutrition

Volumn 22, Issue , 2002, Pages 87-105

  Morris Jr , Sidney M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Arginase; Liver; Macrophage; Nitric oxide; Ornithine; Polyamines; Transcription

Indexed keywords

ARGINASE; ARGININE; ARGININOSUCCINATE LYASE; ARGININOSUCCINATE SYNTHASE; CARBAMOYL PHOSPHATE SYNTHASE; CITRULLINE; CYTOKINE; GLUCAGON; GLUCOCORTICOID; INSULIN; NITRIC OXIDE; ORNITHINE; ORNITHINE CARBAMOYLTRANSFERASE; UREA;

AMINO ACID METABOLISM; ANIMAL CELL; CATABOLISM; ENZYME REGULATION; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; MOUSE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION; UREA CYCLE;

ARGININE; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, ENZYMOLOGIC; HUMANS; LIVER; TRANSCRIPTION, GENETIC; UREA;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 0036402941     PISSN: 01999885     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.110801.140547     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Albina JE, Henry WL Jr, Mastrofrancesco B, Martin BA, Reichner JS. 1995. Macrophage activation by culture in an anoxic environment. J. Immunol. 155:4391-96
2. Arnt-Ramos LR, O'Brien WE, Vincent SR. 1992. Immunohistochemical localization of argininosuccinate synthetase in the rat brain in relation to nitric oxide synthase-containing neurons. Neuroscience 51:773-89
3. Baggio R, Ernig FA, Christianson DW, Ash DE, Chakder S, Rattan S. 1999. Biochemical and functional profile of a newly developed potent and isozyme-selective arginase inhibitor. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 290:1409-16
4. Barbul A. 1986. Arginine: Biochemistry, physiology, and therapeutic implications. J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 10:227-38
5. Baydoun AR, Bogle RG, Pearson JD, Mann GE. 1994. Discrimination between citrulline and arginine transport in activated macrophages: Inefficient synthesis of NO from recycling of citrulline to arginine. Br. J. Pharmacol. 112:487-92
6. Beaumier L, Castillo L, Yu Y-M, Ajami AM, Young VR. 1996. Arginine: New and exciting developments for an "old" amino acid. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 9:296-315
7. Beliveau Carey G, Cheung CW, Cohen NS, Brusilow S, Raijman L. 1993. Regulation of urea and citrulline synthesis under physiological conditions. Biochem. J. 292:241-47
8. Deleted in proof
9. Bernard AC, Fitzpatrick EA, Maley ME, Gellin GL, Tsuei BJ, et al. 2000. Beta adrenoreceptor regulation of macrophage arginase activity. Surgery 127:412-18
10. Bernard AC, Mistry SK, Morris SM Jr., O'Brien WE, Tsuei BJ, et al. 2001. Alterations in arginine metabolic enzymes in trauma. Shock 15:215-19
11. Blachier F, M'Rabet-Touil H, Posho L, Darcy-Vrillon B, Duee P-H. 1993. Intestinal arginine metabolism during development. Eur. J. Biochem. 216:109-17
12. Boucher JL, Moali C, Tenu JP. 1999. Nitric oxide biosynthesis, nitric oxide synthase inhibitors and arginase competition for L-arginine utilization. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 55:1015-28
13. Boutard V, Havouis R, Fougueray B, Philippe C, Moulinoux JP, Baud L. 1995. Transforming growth factor-β stimulates arginase activity in macrophages. J. Immunol. 155:2077-84
14. Braissant O, Gotoh T, Loup M, Mori M, Bachmann C. 1999. L-arginine uptake, the citrulline-NO cycle and arginase II in the rat brain: An in situ hybridization study. Molec. Brain Res. 70:231-41
15. G-hydroxyarginine during high-output nitric oxide production. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 271:H1988-98
16. Camacho JA, Obie C, Biery B, Goodman BK, Hu C-A, et al. 1999. Hyperomithinaemia-hyperammonaemia-homocitrullinemia syndrome is caused by mutations in a gene encoding a mitochondrial omithine transporter. Nat. Genet. 22:151-58
17. Castillo L, Chapman TE, Sanchez M, Yu YM, Burke JF, et al. 1993. Plasma arginine and citrulline kinetics in adults given adequate and arginine-free diets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:7749-53
18. Castillo L, Sanchez M, Chapman TE, Ajami A, Burke JF, Young VR. 1994. The plasma flux and oxidation rate of omithine adaptively decline with restricted arginine intake. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:6393-97
19. Chang C-I, Liao JC, Kuo L. 1998. Arginase modulates nitric oxide production in activated macrophages. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 43:H342-48
20. Chang C-I, Zoghi B, Liao JC, Kuo L. 2000. The involvement of tyrosine kinases, cyclic AMP/protein kinase A, and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in IL-13-mediated arginase I induction in macrophages: Its implications in IL-13-inhibited nitric oxide production. J. Immunol. 165:2134-41
21. Cheung C-W, Cohen NS, Raijman L. 1989. Channeling of urea cycle intermediates in situ in permeabilized hepatocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 264:4038-44
22. Christoffels VM, Grange T, Kaestner KH, Cole TJ, Darlington GJ, et al. 1998. Glucocorticoid receptor, C/EBP, HNF3, and protein kinase A coordinately activate the glucocorticoid response unit of the carbamoylphosphate synthetase I gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 18:6305-15
23. Christoffels VM, Habets PEMH, Das AT, Clout DEW, van Roon MA, et al. 2000. A single regulatory module of the carbamylphosphate synthetase I gene executes its hepatic program of expression. J. Biol. Chem. 275:40020-27
24. Christoffels VM, van den Hoff MJ, Lamers MC, van Roon MA, de Boer PA, et al. 1996. The upstream regulatory region of the carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase I gene controls its tissue-specific, developmental, and hormonal regulation in vivo. J. Biol. Chem. 271:31243-50
25. Cohen NS, Cheung C-W, Raijman L. 1987. Channeling of extramitochondrial ornithine to matrix ornithine transcarbamylase. J. Biol. Chem. 262:203-8
26. Corraliza IM, Modolell M, Ferber E, Soler G. 1997. Involvement of protein kinase A in the induction of arginase in murine bone marrow-derived macrophages. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1334:123-28
27. Deleted in proof
28. a. Corvi MM, Soltys CL, Berthiaume LG. 2001. Regulation of mitochondrial carbamoylphosphate synthetase 1 activity by active site fatty acylation. J. Biol. Chem. 276:45704-12
29. Cox JD, Kim NN, Traish AM, Christianson DW. 1999. Arginase-boronic acid complex highlights a physiological role in erectile function. Nat. Struct. Biol. 6:1043-47
30. Curthoys NP, Watford M. 1995. Regulation of glutaminase activity and glutamine metabolism. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 15:133-59
31. Cynober L, Boucher JL, Vasson M-P. 1995. Arginine metabolism in mammals. Nutr. Biochem. 6:402-13
32. G-hydroxy-L-arginine: Implications for the regulation of nitric oxide biosynthesis by arginase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 202:174-80
33. de Jonge WJ, Dingemanse MA, De Boer PA, Lamers WH, Moorman AFM. 1998. Arginine-metabolizing enzymes in the developing rat small intestine. Pediatric Res. 43:442-51
34. Dhahbi JM, Mote PL, Wingo J, Rowley BC, Cao SX, et al. 2001. Caloric restriction alters the feeding response of key metabolic enzyme genes. Mech. Ageing Dev. 122:1033-48
35. Dhahbi JM, Mote PL, Wingo J, Tillman JB, Walford RL, Spindler SR. 1999. Calories and aging alter gene expression for gluconeogenic, glycolytic, and nitrogen-metabolizing enzymes. Am J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 277:E352-60
36. Dugan ME, Knabe DA, Wu G. 1995. The induction of citrulline synthesis from glutamine in enterocytes of weaned pigs is not due primarily to age or change in diet. J. Nutr. 125:2388-93
37. Eagle H. 1959. Amino acid metabolism in mammalian cell cultures. Science 130:432-37
38. Fafournoux P, Bruhat A, Jousse C. 2000. Amino acid regulation of gene expression. Biochem. J. 351:1-12
39. Flodstrom M, Morris SM Jr, Eizirik DL. 1996. Role of the citrulline-nitric oxide cycle in the functional response of adult human and rat pancreatic islets to cytokines. Cytokine 8:642-50
40. Flynn NE, Meininger CJ, Kelly K, Ing NH, Morris SM Jr, Wu G. 1999. Glucocorticoids mediate the enhanced expression of intestinal type II arginase and argininosuccinate lyase in postweaning pigs. J. Nutr. 129:799-803
41. Goping IS, Lamontagne S, Shore GC, Nguyen M. 1995. A gene-type-specific enhancer regulates the carbamyl phosphate synthetase I promoter by cooperating with the proximal GAG activating element. Nucleic Acids Res. 23:1717-21
42. Gotoh T, Mori M. 1999. Arginase II downregulates nitric oxide (NO) production and prevents NO-mediated apoptosis in murine macrophage-derived RAW 264.7 cells. J. Cell Biol. 144:427-34
43. Gotoh T, Sonoki T, Nagasaki A, Terada K, Takiguchi M, Mori M. 1996. Molecular cloning of cDNA for nonhepatic mitochondrial arginase (arginase II) and comparison of its induction with nitric oxide synthase in a murine macrophage-like cell line. FEBS Lett 395:119-22
44. Hammermann R, Hey C, Schafer N, Racke K. 2000. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors and forskolin up-regulate arginase activity in rabbit alveolar macrophages. Pulmonary Pharmacol. Therap. 13:141-47
45. Hammermann R, Bliesener N, Mossner J, Klasen S, Wiesinger H, et al. 1998. Inability of rat alveolar macrophages to recycle L-citrulline to L-arginine despite induction of argininosuccinate synthetase mRNA and protein, and inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis by exogenous citrulline. Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 358:601-7.
46. Harding HP, Novoa II, Zhang Y, Zeng H, Wek R, et al. 2000. Regulated translation initiation controls stress-induced gene expression in mammalian cells. Mol. Cell 6:1099-108
47. Hecker M, Sessa WC, Harris HJ, Anggard EE, Vane JR. 1990. The metabolism of L-arginine and its significance for the biosynthesis of endothelium-derived relaxing factor: Cultured endothelial cells recycle L-citrulline to L-arginine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:8612-16
48. Hey C, Wessler I, Racke K. 1995. Nitric oxide synthase activity is inducible in rat, but not rabbit alveolar macrophages, with a concomitant reduction in arginase activity. Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 351:651-59
49. Iijima M, Jalil A, Begum L, Yasuda T, Yamaguchi N, et al. 2001. Pathogenesis of adult-onset type II citrullinemia caused by deficiency of citrin, a mitochondrial solute carrier protein: Tissue and subcellular localization of citrin. Adv. Enzyme Regul. 41:325-42
50. + translocation. Biochem. J. 327:349-56
51. a. Ignarro LJ, ed. 2000. Nitric Oxide. Biology and Pathobiology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press
52. Jackson MJ, Beaudet AL, O'Brien WE. 1986. Mammalian urea cycle enzymes. Annu. Rev. Genet. 20:431-64
53. Jefferson LS, Kimball SR. 2001. Amino acid regulation of gene expression. J. Nutr. 131:2460S-66S
54. Jenkinson CP, Grody WW, Cederbaum SD. 1996. Comparative properties of arginases. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 114B:107-32
55. Kepka-Lenhart D, Mistry SK, Wu G, Morris SM Jr. 2000. Arginase I: A limiting factor for nitric oxide and polyamine synthesis by activated macrophages? Am. J. Physiol. Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 279:R2237-42
56. Kim NN, Cox JD, Baggio RF, Emig FA, Mistry SK, et al. 2001. Probing erectile function: S-(2-boronoethyl)-L-cysteine binds to arginase as a transition state analogue and enhances smooth muscle relaxation in human penile corpus cavernosum. Biochemistry 40:2678-88
57. Kimura T, Chowdhury S, Tanaka T, Shimizu A, Iwase K, et al. 2001. CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein beta is required for activation of genes for ornithine cycle enzymes by glucocorticoids and glucagon in primary-cultured hepatocytes. FEBS Lett. 494:105-11
58. Kimura T, Christoffels VM, Chowdhury S, Iwase K, Matsuzaki H, et al. 1998. Hypoglycemia-associated hyperammonemia caused by impaired expression of ornithine cycle enzyme genes in C/EBPα knockout mice. J. Biol. Chem. 273:27505-10
59. Kobayashi K, Sinasac DS, Iijima M, Boright AP, Begum L, et al. 1999. The gene mutated in adult-onset type II citrullinaemia encodes a putative mitochondrial carrier protein. Nat. Genet. 22:159-63
60. Krebs HA, Henseleit K. 1932. Untersuchungen uber die hamstoffbildung im tierkorper. Hoppe-Seylers Z Physiol. Chem. 210:33-66
61. Latasa MU, Carretero MV, Garcia-Trevijano ER, Torres L, Mato JM, Avila MA. 2000. Identification of argininosuccinate lyase as a hypoxia-responsive gene in rat hepatocytes. J. Hepatol. 33:709-15
62. Deleted in proof
63. Li H, Meininger CJ, Hawker JR Jr, Haynes TE, Kepka-Lenhart D, et al. 2001. Regulatory role of arginase I and II in syntheses of nitric oxide, polyamines and proline in endothelial cells. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 280:E75-82
64. Li H, Meininger CJ, Hawker JR Jr, Kelly KA, Morris SM Jr, Wu G. 2002. Activities of arginase I and II are limiting for endothelial cell proliferation. Am. J. Physiol. 282:R64-69
65. Louis CA, Mody V, Henry WL Jr, Reichner JS, Albina JE. 1999. Regulation of arginase isoforms I and II by IL-4 in cultured murine peritoneal macrophages. Am. J. Physiol. Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 276:R237-42
66. Louis CA, Reichner JS, Henry WL Jr., Mastrofrancesco B, Gotoh T, et al. 1998. Distinct arginase isoforms expressed in primary and transformed macrophages: Regulation by oxygen tension. Am. J. Physiol. Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 274:R775-82
67. Marzinzig M, Nussler AK, Stadler J, Marzinzig E, Bartlen W, et al. 1997. Improved methods to measure end products of nitric oxide in biological fluids: Nitrite, nitrate, and S-nitrosothiols. Nitric Oxide 1:177-89
68. Mistry SK, Burwell TJ, Chambers RM, Rudolph-Owens L, Spaltmann F, et al. 2002. Cloning of human agmatinase. An alternate path for polyamine synthesis induced in liver by hepatitis B virus. Am. J. Physiol. 282:G375-81
69. Deleted in proof
70. Moody JA, Vernet D, Laidlaw S, Rajfer J, Gonzalez-Cadavid NF. 1997. Effects of long-term oral administration of L-arginine on the rat erectile response. J. Urol. 158:942-47
71. Mori M, Gotoh T. 2000. Regulation of nitric oxide production by arginine metabolic enzymes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 275:715-19
72. Mori M, Gotoh T. 2000. Relationship Between Arginase Activity and Nitric Oxide Production. See Ref. 49a, pp. 199-208
73. Morimoto BH, Brady JF, Atkinson DE. 1990. Effect of level of dietary protein on arginine-stimulated citrulline synthesis. Correlation with mitochondrial N-acetylglutamate concentrations. Biochem. J. 272:671-75
74. Morris SM Jr. 1992. Regulation of enzymes of urea and arginine synthesis. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 12:81-101
75. Morris SM Jr. 1999. Arginine synthesis, metabolism, and transport: Regulators of nitric oxide synthesis. In Cellular and Molecular Biology of Nitric Oxide, ed. JD Laskin, DL Laskin, pp. 57-85. New York: Marcel Dekker
76. Morris SM Jr. 2000. Regulation of arginine availability and its impact on NO synthesis. See Ref. 49a, pp. 187-97
77. Morris SM Jr, Bhamidipati D, Kepka-Lenhart D. 1997. Human type II arginase: Sequence analysis and tissue-specific expression. Gene 193:157-61
78. Morris SM Jr, Billiar TR. 1994. New insights into the regulation of induced nitric oxide synthesis. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 266:E829-39
79. Morris SM Jr, Kepka-Lenhart D, Chen LC. 1998. Differential regulation of arginases and inducible nitric oxide synthase in murine macrophage cells. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 275:E740-47
80. Morris SM Jr, Moncman CL, Rand KD, Dizikes GJ, Cederbaum SD, O'Brien WE. 1987. Regulation of mRNA levels for five urea cycle enzymes in rat liver by diet, cyclic AMP, and glucocorticoids. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 256:343-53
81. 4+ cells correlates with Thl/Th2 phenotype. J. Immunol. 160:5347-54
82. Munder M, Eichmann K, Moran JM, Centeno F, Soler G, Modollel M. 1999. Th1/Th2-regulated expression of arginase isoforms in murine macrophages and dendritic cells. J. Immunol. 163:3771-77
83. Musa DMAA, Kobayashi K, Yasuda I, Iijima M, Christoffels VM, et al. 1999. Involvement of a cis-acting element in the suppression of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I gene expression in the liver of carnitine-deficient mice. Mol. Genet. Metab. 68:346-56
84. Deleted in proof
85. Nagasaki A, Gotoh T, Takeya M, Yu Y, Takiguchi M, et al. 1996. Coinduction of nitric oxide synthase, argininosuccinate synthetase, and argininosuccinate lyase in lipopolysaccharide-treated rats. RNA blot, immunoblot, and immunohistochemical analyses. J. Biol. Chem. 271:2658-62
86. Nebes VL, Morris SM Jr. 1988. Regulation of messenger ribonucleic acid levels for five urea cycle enzymes in cultured rat hepatocytes. Requirements for cyclic adenosine monophosphate, glucocorticoids, and ongoing protein synthesis. Mol. Endocrinol. 2:444-51
87. Deleted in proof
88. Nicholson B, Manner CK, Kleeman J, MacLeod CL. 2001. Sustained nitric oxide production in macrophages requires the arginine transporter CAT2. J. Biol. Chem. 276:15881-85
89. Nissim I, Yudkoff M, Brosnan JT. 1996. Regulation of [15N]urea synthesis from [5-15N]glutamine. Role of pH, hormones, and pyruvate. J. Biol. Chem. 271:31234-42
90. Norris KA, Schrimpf JE, Flynn JL, Morris SM Jr. 1995. Enhancement of macrophage microbicidal activity: Supplemental arginine and citrulline augment nitric oxide production in murine peritoneal macrophages and promote intracellular killing of Trypanosoma cruzi. Infect. Immun. 63:2793-96
91. Nussler AK, Billiar TR, Liu ZZ, Morris SM Jr. 1994. Coinduction of nitric oxide synthase and argininosuccinate synthetase in a murine macrophage cell line. Implications for regulation of nitric oxide production. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1257-61
92. Nussler AK, Liu ZZ, Hatakeyama K, Geller DA, Billiar TR, Morris SM Jr. 1996. A cohort of supporting metabolic enzymes is coinduced with nitric oxide synthase in human tumor cell lines. Cancer Lett. 103:79-84
93. Ochoa JB, Bernard AC, Mistry SK, Morris SM Jr., Figert PL, et al. 2000. Trauma increases extrahepatic arginase activity. Surgery 127:419-26
94. Ochoa JB, Bernard AC, O'Brien WE, Griffen MM, Maley ME, et al. 2001. Arginase I expression and activity in human mononuclear cells after injury. Ann. Surg. 233:393-99
95. O'Sullivan D, Brosnan JT, Brosnan ME. 1998. Hepatic zonation of the catabolism of arginine and omithine in the perfused rat liver. Biochem. J. 330:627-32
96. Palmieri L, Pardo B, Lasorsa FM, del Arco A, Kobayashi K, et al. 2001. Citrin and aralarl are Ca(2+)-stimulated aspartate/glutamate transporters in mitochondria. EMBO J. 20:5060-69
97. Rabier D, Kamoun P. 1995. Metabolism of citrulline in man. Amino Acids 9:299-316
98. Ratner S. 1973. Enzymes of arginine and urea synthesis. Adv. Enzymol. 39:1-90
99. Reyes AA, Karl IE, Klahr S. 1994. Role of arginine in health and in renal disease. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 267:F331-46
100. Rutschman R, Lang R, Hesse M, Ihle JN, Wynn TA, Murray PJ. 2001. Cutting edge: Stat6-dependent substrate depletion regulates nitric oxide production. J. Immunol. 166:2173-77
101. Ryan JL, Yohe WB, Morrison DC. 1980. Stimulation of peritoneal cell arginase by bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Am. J. Pathol. 99:451-62
102. Saheki T, Li MX, Kobayashi K. 2000. Antagonizing effect of AP-1 on glucocorticoid induction of urea cycle enzymes: A study of hyperammonemia in carnitinedeficient, juvenile visceral steatosis mice. Mol. Genet. Metab. 71:545-51
103. Schmidlin A, Wiesinger H. 1998. Argininosuccinate synthetase: Localization in astrocytes and role in the production of glial nitric oxide. Glia 24:428-36
104. Shi O, Morris SM Jr, Zoghbi H, Porter CW, O'Brien WE. 2001. Generation of a mouse model for arginase II deficiency by targeted disruption of the arginase II gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 21:811-13
105. Simmons WW, Closs EI, Cunningham JM, Smith TW, Kelly RA. 1996. Cytokines and insulin induce cationic transporter (CAT) expression in cardiac myocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 271:11694-702
106. ω-hydroxy-L-arginine selectively inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in MDA-MB-468 cells. Cancer Res. 60:3305-12
107. Sonoki T, Nagasaki A, Gotoh T, Takiguchi M, Takeya M, et al. 1997. Coinduction of nitric-oxide synthase and arginase I in cultured rat peritoneal macrophages and rat tissues in vivo by lipopolysaccharide. J. Biol. Chem. 272:3689-93
108. Stevens BR, Kakuda DK, Yu K, Waters M, Vo CB, Raizada MK. 1996. Induced nitric oxide synthesis is dependent on induced alternatively spliced CAT-2 encoding L-arginine transport in brain astrocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 271:24017-22
109. Stewart PM, Walser M. 1980. Short term regulation of ureagenesis. J. Biol. Chem. 255:5270-80
110. Su C-L, Austic RE. 1999. The recycling of L-citrulline to L-arginine in a chicken macrophage cell line. Poultry Sci. 78:353-55
111. Takiguchi M, Mori M. 1995. Transcriptional regulation of genes for ornithine cycle enzymes. Biochem. J. 312:649-59
112. ω-hydroxynor-L-arginine on NO synthase activity in murine macrophages. Nitric Oxide 3:427-38
113. Tillman JB, Dhahbi JM, Mote PL, Walford RL, Spindler SR. 1996. Dietary calorie restriction in mice induces carbamyl phosphate synthetase I gene transcription tissue specifically. J. Biol. Chem. 271:3500-6
114. Tomomura M, Imamura Y, Horiuchi M, Koizumi T, Nikaido H, et al. 1992. Abnormal expression of urea cycle enzyme genes in juvenile visceral steatosis (jvs) mice. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1138:167-71
115. Tomomura M, Imamura Y, Tomomura A, Horiuchi M, Saheki T. 1994. Abnormal gene expression and regulation in the liver of jvs mice with systemic carnitine deficiency. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1226:307-14
116. Tomomura M, Tomomura A, Dewan MA, Saheki T. 1996. Long-chain fatty acids suppress the induction of urea cycle enzyme genes by glucocorticoid action. FEBS Lett. 399:310-12
117. Valle D, Simell O. 2001. The hyperornithinemias. In The Metabolic & Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease, ed. CR Scriver, AL Beaudet, WS Sly, D Valle, B Childs, et al, pp. 1857-95. New York: McGraw-Hill
118. van den Hoff MJ, van de Zande LP, Dingemanse MA, Das AT, Labruyere W, et al. 1995. Isolation and characterization of the rat gene for carbamoylphosphate synthetase I. Eur. J. Biochem. 228:351-61
119. Vockley JG, Jenkinson CP, Shukula H, Kern RM, Grody WW, Cederbaum SC. 1996. Cloning and characterization of the human type II arginase gene. Genomics 38:118-23
120. Wakabayashi Y, Yamada E, Yoshida T, Takahashi H. 1994. Arginine becomes an essential amino acid after massive resection of rat small intestine. J. Biol. Chem. 269:32667-71
121. Wang WW, Jenkinson CP, Griscavage JM, Kern RM, Arabolos NS, et al. 1995. Coinduction of arginase and nitric oxide synthase in murine macrophages activated by lipopolysaccharide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 210:1009-16
122. Waterlow JC. 1999. The mysteries of nitrogen balance. Nutr. Res. Rev. 12:25-54
123. Watford M. 1989. Channeling in the urea cycle: A metabolon spanning two compartments. Trends Biochem. Sci. 14:313-14
124. Watford M. 1993. Hepatic glutaminase expression: Relationship to kidney-type glutaminase and to the urea cycle. FASEB J. 7:1468-74
125. Wei LH, Wu G, Morris SM Jr., Ignarro LJ. 2001. Elevated arginase I expression in rat aortic smooth muscle cells increases cell proliferation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:9260-64
126. Wiesinger H. 2001. Arginine metabolism and the synthesis of nitric oxide in the nervous system. Prog. Neurobiol. 64:365-91
127. Wu G. 1995. Urea synthesis in enterocytes of developing pigs. Biochem J. 312:717-23
128. Wu G, Knabe DA, Flynn NE. 1994. Synthesis of citrulline from glutamine in pig enterocytes. Biochem. J. 299:115-21
129. Wu G, Meininger CJ, Kelly K, Watford M, Morris SM Jr. 2000. A cortisol surge mediates the enhanced expression of pig intestinal pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase during weaning. J. Nutr. 130:1914-19
130. Wu G, Morris SM Jr. 1998. Arginine metabolism: Nitric oxide and beyond. Biochem. J. 336:1-17
131. Wu R-Y, Borbolla AG, Knabe DA. 1994. The uptake of glutamine and release of arginine, citrulline and proline by the small intestine of developing pigs. J. Nutr. 124:2437-44
132. Xie L, Gross SS. 1997. Argininosuccinate synthetase overexpression in vascular smooth muscle cells potentiates immunostimulant-induced NO production. J. Biol. Chem. 272:16624-30
133. Zhang WY, Gotoh T, Oyadomari S, Mori M. 2000. Coinduction of inducible nitric oxide synthase and arginine recycling enzymes in cytokine-stimulated PC12 cells and high output production of nitric oxide. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 83:1-8
134. Zhang WY, Takiguchi M, Koshiyama Y, Gotoh T, Nagasaki A, et al. 1999. Expression of citrulline-nitric oxide cycle in lipopolysaccharide and cytokine-stimulated rat astroglioma C6 cells. Brain Res. 849:78-84
135. Zorgniotti AW, Lizza EF. 1994. Effect of large doses of the nitric oxide precursor, L-arginine, on erectile dysfunction. Int. J. Impotence Res. 6:33-36