Relationships between theorists/researchers and policy makers/practitioners: Rethinking the two-cultures thesis and the possibility of dialogue

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 45, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 173-196

  Ginsburg, Mark B ^a   Gorostiaga, Jorge M ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035631051     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447660     Document Type: Article

References (198)

1. William Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use: A Profile of Procedures and Issues," in Knowledge Generation, Exchange and Utilization, ed. George Beal, Wimal Dissanayake, and Sumiye Konoshima (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1986), pp. 369-403, quotation on p. 369.
2. Maureen Hallinan, "Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 131-34; Bruce Biddle and Don Anderson, "Social Research and Educational Change," in Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through Research, ed. Don Anderson and Bruce Biddle (London: Falmer, 1991), pp. 1-20; Stephen Heyneman, "Quantity, Quality, and Source," Comparative Education Review 37, no. 4 (November 1993): 372-88; George Psacharopoulos, "Comparative Education: From Theory to Practice, or Are You A:/neo.* or B:/*.ist?" Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 (1990): 369-80.
3. Maureen Hallinan, "Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 131-34; Bruce Biddle and Don Anderson, "Social Research and Educational Change," in Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through Research, ed. Don Anderson and Bruce Biddle (London: Falmer, 1991), pp. 1-20; Stephen Heyneman, "Quantity, Quality, and Source," Comparative Education Review 37, no. 4 (November 1993): 372-88; George Psacharopoulos, "Comparative Education: From Theory to Practice, or Are You A:/neo.* or B:/*.ist?" Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 (1990): 369-80.
4. Maureen Hallinan, "Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 131-34; Bruce Biddle and Don Anderson, "Social Research and Educational Change," in Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through Research, ed. Don Anderson and Bruce Biddle (London: Falmer, 1991), pp. 1-20; Stephen Heyneman, "Quantity, Quality, and Source," Comparative Education Review 37, no. 4 (November 1993): 372-88; George Psacharopoulos, "Comparative Education: From Theory to Practice, or Are You A:/neo.* or B:/*.ist?" Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 (1990): 369-80.
5. Maureen Hallinan, "Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 131-34; Bruce Biddle and Don Anderson, "Social Research and Educational Change," in Knowledge for Policy: Improving Education through Research, ed. Don Anderson and Bruce Biddle (London: Falmer, 1991), pp. 1-20; Stephen Heyneman, "Quantity, Quality, and Source," Comparative Education Review 37, no. 4 (November 1993): 372-88; George Psacharopoulos, "Comparative Education: From Theory to Practice, or Are You A:/neo.* or B:/*.ist?" Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 (1990): 369-80.
6. Fernando Reimers and Noel McGinn, Informed Dialogue: Using Research to Shape Education Policy around the World (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997), quotation on p. 5.
7. Wanda Rokicka, "Introduction," in Educational Documentation, Research and Decision-Making: National Case Studies, ed. Wanda Rokicka (Paris: International Bureau of Education, 1999), pp. 7-20, quotation on p. 7; see also Reimers and McGinn, p. 5; Carol Weiss, "The Many Meanings of Research Utilization," in Anderson and Biddle, eds. In contrast, some view the utilization of research by policy makers and practitioners as having negative consequences, e.g., "supporting the status quo [which presumably exhibits negative features] or facilitating actions that are questionable" (Biddle and Anderson, p. 17).
8. Wanda Rokicka, "Introduction," in Educational Documentation, Research and Decision-Making: National Case Studies, ed. Wanda Rokicka (Paris: International Bureau of Education, 1999), pp. 7-20, quotation on p. 7; see also Reimers and McGinn, p. 5; Carol Weiss, "The Many Meanings of Research Utilization," in Anderson and Biddle, eds. In contrast, some view the utilization of research by policy makers and practitioners as having negative consequences, e.g., "supporting the status quo [which presumably exhibits negative features] or facilitating actions that are questionable" (Biddle and Anderson, p. 17).
9. Wanda Rokicka, "Introduction," in Educational Documentation, Research and Decision-Making: National Case Studies, ed. Wanda Rokicka (Paris: International Bureau of Education, 1999), pp. 7-20, quotation on p. 7; see also Reimers and McGinn, p. 5; Carol Weiss, "The Many Meanings of Research Utilization," in Anderson and Biddle, eds. In contrast, some view the utilization of research by policy makers and practitioners as having negative consequences, e.g., "supporting the status quo [which presumably exhibits negative features] or facilitating actions that are questionable" (Biddle and Anderson, p. 17).
10. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
11. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
12. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
13. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
14. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
15. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
16. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
17. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
18. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
19. We suspect that this group would be made up of mostly policy makers and practitioners and relatively fewer theorists and researchers in the field of comparative education. On the general issue of communication from policy makers and practitioners to theorists and researchers, see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 370; Weiss, "The Many Meanings," p. 181; John Meyer and David Baker, "Forming American Educational Policy with International Data: Lessons from the Sociology of Education," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 123-30; Andrew Pettigrew, "Contextualist Research: A Natural Way to Link Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That Is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler, Allan Mohrman, Susan Mohrman, Gerald Leoford, and Thomas Cummings (Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass, 1985), pp. 222-48; Psacharopoulos, p. 380. Those who balk at the notion worry that scholars would be co-opted and lose their "objectivity" (J. Bradley Cousins and Kenneth Leithwood, "Current Empirical Research on Evaluation Utilization," Review of Evaluation Research 56, no. 3 [1986]: 331-64), become "cheap consultants" (Robert Burgess, "Contractors and Customers: A Research Relationship?" in Educational Research and Evaluation: For Policy and Practice? ed. Robert Burgess [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1993], pp. 21-31, quotation on p. 25) rather than independent researchers "examining basic theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues" (Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use," p. 394), eschew feminist and other critical perspectives (Catherine Marshall, "Researching the Margins: Feminist Critical Policy Analysis," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 [1999]: 60), and tend to serve the interests of dominant groups (Michael F. D. Young, "Introduction," in Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education, ed. Michael F. D. Young [New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1970], pp. 1-18).
20. See Weiss, "The Many Meanings."
21. Biddle and Anderson, p. 6. Although Biddle and Anderson, among others (e.g., Thomas Barone, "Introduction," International Journal of Educational Research ["The Uses of Educational Research"] 23, no. 2 [1995]: 107-12; Cousins and Leithwood), focus on the communication of knowledge from theorists/researchers to policy makers/practitioners, we suggest that similar issues arise when we consider how theorists/researchers utilize the knowledge of policy/practice concerns that may be transmitted to them by policy makers/practitioners. Perhaps, given that most of the literature we reviewed was based on the writings by members of the theorist/researcher community, it is not surprising that very little attention is devoted to the other direction of communication.
22. Biddle and Anderson, p. 6. Although Biddle and Anderson, among others (e.g., Thomas Barone, "Introduction," International Journal of Educational Research ["The Uses of Educational Research"] 23, no. 2 [1995]: 107-12; Cousins and Leithwood), focus on the communication of knowledge from theorists/researchers to policy makers/practitioners, we suggest that similar issues arise when we consider how theorists/researchers utilize the knowledge of policy/practice concerns that may be transmitted to them by policy makers/practitioners. Perhaps, given that most of the literature we reviewed was based on the writings by members of the theorist/researcher community, it is not surprising that very little attention is devoted to the other direction of communication.
23. See Weiss, "The Many Meanings."
24. William N. Dunn ("Conceptualizing Knowledge Use," in Beal, Dissanayake, and Konoshima, eds. [n. 1 above], p. 336) notes that many authors have distinguished conceptual and instrumental uses of knowledge, but he argues that "instrumental use is a particular type of conceptual use. " Carol Weiss ("Perspectives on Knowledge Use in National Policy Making," in Beal, Dissanayake, and Konoshima, eds., p. 420) states that utilization is best seen as a continuum between instrumental and conceptual use (as decision makers do not recall specific studies but report use of research in their decisions). Ray Rist and M. Kathleen Joyce ("Qualitative Research and Implementation Evaluation: A Path to Organizational Learning," International Journal of Educational Research ["The Uses of Educational Research"] 23, no. 2 [1995]: 127-36) combine the instrumental and conceptual use models into what they term "double-loop" learning, which they view as the best way for evaluation and research findings to contribute to "good organizational decisionmaking."
25. William N. Dunn ("Conceptualizing Knowledge Use," in Beal, Dissanayake, and Konoshima, eds. [n. 1 above], p. 336) notes that many authors have distinguished conceptual and instrumental uses of knowledge, but he argues that "instrumental use is a particular type of conceptual use. " Carol Weiss ("Perspectives on Knowledge Use in National Policy Making," in Beal, Dissanayake, and Konoshima, eds., p. 420) states that utilization is best seen as a continuum between instrumental and conceptual use (as decision makers do not recall specific studies but report use of research in their decisions). Ray Rist and M. Kathleen Joyce ("Qualitative Research and Implementation Evaluation: A Path to Organizational Learning," International Journal of Educational Research ["The Uses of Educational Research"] 23, no. 2 [1995]: 127-36) combine the instrumental and conceptual use models into what they term "double-loop" learning, which they view as the best way for evaluation and research findings to contribute to "good organizational decisionmaking."
26. William N. Dunn ("Conceptualizing Knowledge Use," in Beal, Dissanayake, and Konoshima, eds. [n. 1 above], p. 336) notes that many authors have distinguished conceptual and instrumental uses of knowledge, but he argues that "instrumental use is a particular type of conceptual use. " Carol Weiss ("Perspectives on Knowledge Use in National Policy Making," in Beal, Dissanayake, and Konoshima, eds., p. 420) states that utilization is best seen as a continuum between instrumental and conceptual use (as decision makers do not recall specific studies but report use of research in their decisions). Ray Rist and M. Kathleen Joyce ("Qualitative Research and Implementation Evaluation: A Path to Organizational Learning," International Journal of Educational Research ["The Uses of Educational Research"] 23, no. 2 [1995]: 127-36) combine the instrumental and conceptual use models into what they term "double-loop" learning, which they view as the best way for evaluation and research findings to contribute to "good organizational decisionmaking."
27. Weiss, "The Many Meanings." In his discussion of externally funded, policy-oriented research in "developing" countries, Kenneth King ("Dilemmas of Research Aid to Education in Developing Countries," Prospects 11, no. 3 [1981]: 350) notes that "whatever the record on implementation of the results of such research, it is at least arguable that work of a more theoretical nature may equally be implementable (cf. the work of Freire, which . . . has reached and affected many people with responsibility for literacy policy)."
28. Weiss, "The Many Meanings." In his discussion of externally funded, policy-oriented research in "developing" countries, Kenneth King ("Dilemmas of Research Aid to Education in Developing Countries," Prospects 11, no. 3 [1981]: 350) notes that "whatever the record on implementation of the results of such research, it is at least arguable that work of a more theoretical nature may equally be implementable (cf. the work of Freire, which . . . has reached and affected many people with responsibility for literacy policy)."
29. Guy Benveniste, The Politics of Expertise (San Francisco: Boyd & Fraser, 1977); Laura Leviton and Edward Hughes, "Research on the Utilization of Evaluations: A Review and Synthesis," Evaluation Review 5, no. 4 (1981): 525-48; Thomas Lovelace, "The Use and Misuse of Research in Educational Reform," in Brookings Papers on Educational Policy, ed. Diane Ravitch (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1998), pp. 79-94. We label this model "strategic" rather than "political" both because one of its forms (identified by Weiss, "The Many Meanings") is called "political" and because of the generally negative connotation of the term "political" (see Mark Ginsburg, The Politics of Educators' Work and Lives [New York: Garland, 1995]).
30. Guy Benveniste, The Politics of Expertise (San Francisco: Boyd & Fraser, 1977); Laura Leviton and Edward Hughes, "Research on the Utilization of Evaluations: A Review and Synthesis," Evaluation Review 5, no. 4 (1981): 525-48; Thomas Lovelace, "The Use and Misuse of Research in Educational Reform," in Brookings Papers on Educational Policy, ed. Diane Ravitch (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1998), pp. 79-94. We label this model "strategic" rather than "political" both because one of its forms (identified by Weiss, "The Many Meanings") is called "political" and because of the generally negative connotation of the term "political" (see Mark Ginsburg, The Politics of Educators' Work and Lives [New York: Garland, 1995]).
31. Guy Benveniste, The Politics of Expertise (San Francisco: Boyd & Fraser, 1977); Laura Leviton and Edward Hughes, "Research on the Utilization of Evaluations: A Review and Synthesis," Evaluation Review 5, no. 4 (1981): 525-48; Thomas Lovelace, "The Use and Misuse of Research in Educational Reform," in Brookings Papers on Educational Policy, ed. Diane Ravitch (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1998), pp. 79-94. We label this model "strategic" rather than "political" both because one of its forms (identified by Weiss, "The Many Meanings") is called "political" and because of the generally negative connotation of the term "political" (see Mark Ginsburg, The Politics of Educators' Work and Lives [New York: Garland, 1995]).
32. Guy Benveniste, The Politics of Expertise (San Francisco: Boyd & Fraser, 1977); Laura Leviton and Edward Hughes, "Research on the Utilization of Evaluations: A Review and Synthesis," Evaluation Review 5, no. 4 (1981): 525-48; Thomas Lovelace, "The Use and Misuse of Research in Educational Reform," in Brookings Papers on Educational Policy, ed. Diane Ravitch (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1998), pp. 79-94. We label this model "strategic" rather than "political" both because one of its forms (identified by Weiss, "The Many Meanings") is called "political" and because of the generally negative connotation of the term "political" (see Mark Ginsburg, The Politics of Educators' Work and Lives [New York: Garland, 1995]).
33. For a discussion of "political" and "tactical" uses of knowledge, see Weiss, "The Many Meanings."
34. For illustrations of the "promotional" form of research knowledge utilization, see Don Adams, Mark Ginsburg, Thomas Clayton, Martha Mantilla, Judy Sylvester, and Yidan Wang, "Linking Research to Policy and Practice to Improve Educational Quality," in New Approaches to Studying Educational Policy Formation and Appropriation, ed. Bradley Levinson and Margaret Sutton (New York: Ablex, 2000), pp. 1-14.
35. Anne Klemperer, Henno Theisens, and Frans Kaiser, "Dancing in the Dark: The Relationship between Policy Research and Policy Making in Dutch Higher Education," in this issue.
36. They also found the linear, stage model of the policy process to be overly simplistic, especially when one takes into consideration the broader context within which any particular policy process occurs. They thus come to agree with Weiss ("Perspectives on Knowledge Use," pp. 410-11), who argues for dynamic, nonlinear models in which the "process is not one of linear order from research to decision but a disorderly set of interconnections and back-and-forthness that defies neat diagrams." On different models for analyzing policy-making processes, see also Rita Kelly and Dennis Palumbo, "Theories of Policy-Making," in Encyclopedia of Government and Politics, ed. Mary Hawkesworth and Maurice Kogan (New York: Routledge, 1992), pp. 128-45.
37. They also found the linear, stage model of the policy process to be overly simplistic, especially when one takes into consideration the broader context within which any particular policy process occurs. They thus come to agree with Weiss ("Perspectives on Knowledge Use," pp. 410-11), who argues for dynamic, nonlinear models in which the "process is not one of linear order from research to decision but a disorderly set of interconnections and back-and-forthness that defies neat diagrams." On different models for analyzing policy-making processes, see also Rita Kelly and Dennis Palumbo, "Theories of Policy-Making," in Encyclopedia of Government and Politics, ed. Mary Hawkesworth and Maurice Kogan (New York: Routledge, 1992), pp. 128-45.
38. See, e.g., Rita Brause and John Mayher, eds., Search and Re-Search: What the Inquiring Teacher Needs to Know (London: Falmer, 1991); Hallinan (n. 2 above), p. 131; Mary Kennedy, "The Connection between Research and Practice," Educational Researcher 26, no. 7 (October 1997): 4-12; Cheol Oh, Linking Social Science Information in Policy-Making (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1996), pp. 56-70; Psacharopoulous (n. 2 above).
39. See, e.g., Rita Brause and John Mayher, eds., Search and Re-Search: What the Inquiring Teacher Needs to Know (London: Falmer, 1991); Hallinan (n. 2 above), p. 131; Mary Kennedy, "The Connection between Research and Practice," Educational Researcher 26, no. 7 (October 1997): 4-12; Cheol Oh, Linking Social Science Information in Policy-Making (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1996), pp. 56-70; Psacharopoulous (n. 2 above).
40. See, e.g., Rita Brause and John Mayher, eds., Search and Re-Search: What the Inquiring Teacher Needs to Know (London: Falmer, 1991); Hallinan (n. 2 above), p. 131; Mary Kennedy, "The Connection between Research and Practice," Educational Researcher 26, no. 7 (October 1997): 4-12; Cheol Oh, Linking Social Science Information in Policy-Making (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1996), pp. 56-70; Psacharopoulous (n. 2 above).
41. See, e.g., Rita Brause and John Mayher, eds., Search and Re-Search: What the Inquiring Teacher Needs to Know (London: Falmer, 1991); Hallinan (n. 2 above), p. 131; Mary Kennedy, "The Connection between Research and Practice," Educational Researcher 26, no. 7 (October 1997): 4-12; Cheol Oh, Linking Social Science Information in Policy-Making (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1996), pp. 56-70; Psacharopoulous (n. 2 above).
42. In addition to the two-cultures (mis)communication model (to be discussed below), Dunn ("Conceptualizing Knowledge Use," p. 328) also identifies what he terms "quasi-physical process" metaphors of knowledge utilization (e.g., "carried from source to receiver like a bucket carries water," "travels like a bullet shot at a target," and "spreads like an infectious disease"). Each of these models focuses attention on the transmission process rather than the cultural characteristics of the transmitting or receiving entities.
43. Ibid., pp. 329-30.
44. Henry Levin, "Why Isn't Educational Research More Useful?" in Anderson and Biddle, eds. (n. 2 above), pp. 70-78, esp. pp. 72 and 77.
45. Barone (n. 7 above), p. 109.
46. Weiss, "Perspectives on Knowledge Use" (n. 9 above), p. 415.
47. Barone, p. 109.
48. Andrew Gitlin, Karen Bringurst, Mari Burns, Valerie Cooley, Beth Meyers, Kathy Price, Robyn Russell, and Pat Tiess, Teachers' Voices for School Change: An Introduction to Educative Research (New York: Teachers College Press, 1992), p. 25. See also William Foote Whyte, in "Introduction," in Participatory Action Research, ed. William F. Whyte (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1991), p. 8.
49. Andrew Gitlin, Karen Bringurst, Mari Burns, Valerie Cooley, Beth Meyers, Kathy Price, Robyn Russell, and Pat Tiess, Teachers' Voices for School Change: An Introduction to Educative Research (New York: Teachers College Press, 1992), p. 25. See also William Foote Whyte, in "Introduction," in Participatory Action Research, ed. William F. Whyte (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1991), p. 8.
50. This focus on academic colleagues helps to define policy makers and practitioners as "others." As Joyce Epstein ("New Connections for Sociology and Education: Contributing to School Reform," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 [1996]: 6-23, quotation on 13) observes, this cultural divide means that sociologists of education and other educational researchers "are even less prepared to connect with educators than with policy makers and have little experience of success in seeing their work influence daily practice."
51. Levin (n. 19 above); Weiss, "Perspectives on Knowledge Use"; Nadia Auriat ("Social Policy and Social Enquiry: Reopening Debate," International Social Science Journal 50, no. 2 [1998]: 275-87, quotations on 278) notes that two of the four reasons that researchers become involved in the policy arena are tied to scholar community values ("to become a "reputable and respected social scientist" and "to advance the cause of analytically based decision-making"), while the other two ("to make a difference" and "to advocate a particular political position") may be seen as more in line with policy maker/practitioner norms.
52. Levin (n. 19 above); Weiss, "Perspectives on Knowledge Use"; Nadia Auriat ("Social Policy and Social Enquiry: Reopening Debate," International Social Science Journal 50, no. 2 [1998]: 275-87, quotations on 278) notes that two of the four reasons that researchers become involved in the policy arena are tied to scholar community values ("to become a "reputable and respected social scientist" and "to advance the cause of analytically based decision-making"), while the other two ("to make a difference" and "to advocate a particular political position") may be seen as more in line with policy maker/practitioner norms.
53. Levin (n. 19 above); Weiss, "Perspectives on Knowledge Use"; Nadia Auriat ("Social Policy and Social Enquiry: Reopening Debate," International Social Science Journal 50, no. 2 [1998]: 275-87, quotations on 278) notes that two of the four reasons that researchers become involved in the policy arena are tied to scholar community values ("to become a "reputable and respected social scientist" and "to advance the cause of analytically based decision-making"), while the other two ("to make a difference" and "to advocate a particular political position") may be seen as more in line with policy maker/practitioner norms.
54. Psacharopoulos (n. 2 above), p. 369.
55. Joyce Epstein, p. 10. See also Marshall (n. 5 above); Steven Miller and Marcel Fredericks, "Social Science Findings and Educational Policy Dilemmas: Some Additional Distinctions," Education Policy Analysis Archives 8, no. 3 (2000): 1-10, quotation on 4-5 (http:/epaa.asu.edu.epaa/v8n3).
56. Joyce Epstein, p. 10. See also Marshall (n. 5 above); Steven Miller and Marcel Fredericks, "Social Science Findings and Educational Policy Dilemmas: Some Additional Distinctions," Education Policy Analysis Archives 8, no. 3 (2000): 1-10, quotation on 4-5 (http:/epaa.asu.edu.epaa/v8n3).
57. Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above); Robert Donmoyer, "Empirical Research as Solution and Problem: Two Narratives of Knowledge Use," International Journal of Educational Research 23, no. 2 (1995): 151-67, esp. 152; Joyce Epstein; Torsten Husén, "Educational Research at the Crossroads? An Exercise in Self-Criticism," Prospects 19, no. 3 (1989): 351-60; Kennedy (n. 16 above); Levin; Karen Seashore Louis, "Making Meaning of the Relationship between Research and Policy: An Epilogue," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 (1999); Marshall; Miller and Fredericks; William Reese, "What History Teaches about the Impact of Educational Research on Practice," Review of Research in Education 24 (1999): 1-19, esp. p. 8; Reimers and McGinn (n. 3 above); Rokicka (n. 4 above), p. 17.
58. Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above); Robert Donmoyer, "Empirical Research as Solution and Problem: Two Narratives of Knowledge Use," International Journal of Educational Research 23, no. 2 (1995): 151-67, esp. 152; Joyce Epstein; Torsten Husén, "Educational Research at the Crossroads? An Exercise in Self-Criticism," Prospects 19, no. 3 (1989): 351-60; Kennedy (n. 16 above); Levin; Karen Seashore Louis, "Making Meaning of the Relationship between Research and Policy: An Epilogue," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 (1999); Marshall; Miller and Fredericks; William Reese, "What History Teaches about the Impact of Educational Research on Practice," Review of Research in Education 24 (1999): 1-19, esp. p. 8; Reimers and McGinn (n. 3 above); Rokicka (n. 4 above), p. 17.
59. Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above); Robert Donmoyer, "Empirical Research as Solution and Problem: Two Narratives of Knowledge Use," International Journal of Educational Research 23, no. 2 (1995): 151-67, esp. 152; Joyce Epstein; Torsten Husén, "Educational Research at the Crossroads? An Exercise in Self-Criticism," Prospects 19, no. 3 (1989): 351-60; Kennedy (n. 16 above); Levin; Karen Seashore Louis, "Making Meaning of the Relationship between Research and Policy: An Epilogue," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 (1999); Marshall; Miller and Fredericks; William Reese, "What History Teaches about the Impact of Educational Research on Practice," Review of Research in Education 24 (1999): 1-19, esp. p. 8; Reimers and McGinn (n. 3 above); Rokicka (n. 4 above), p. 17.
60. Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above); Robert Donmoyer, "Empirical Research as Solution and Problem: Two Narratives of Knowledge Use," International Journal of Educational Research 23, no. 2 (1995): 151-67, esp. 152; Joyce Epstein; Torsten Husén, "Educational Research at the Crossroads? An Exercise in Self-Criticism," Prospects 19, no. 3 (1989): 351-60; Kennedy (n. 16 above); Levin; Karen Seashore Louis, "Making Meaning of the Relationship between Research and Policy: An Epilogue," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 (1999); Marshall; Miller and Fredericks; William Reese, "What History Teaches about the Impact of Educational Research on Practice," Review of Research in Education 24 (1999): 1-19, esp. p. 8; Reimers and McGinn (n. 3 above); Rokicka (n. 4 above), p. 17.
61. Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above); Robert Donmoyer, "Empirical Research as Solution and Problem: Two Narratives of Knowledge Use," International Journal of Educational Research 23, no. 2 (1995): 151-67, esp. 152; Joyce Epstein; Torsten Husén, "Educational Research at the Crossroads? An Exercise in Self-Criticism," Prospects 19, no. 3 (1989): 351-60; Kennedy (n. 16 above); Levin; Karen Seashore Louis, "Making Meaning of the Relationship between Research and Policy: An Epilogue," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 (1999); Marshall; Miller and Fredericks; William Reese, "What History Teaches about the Impact of Educational Research on Practice," Review of Research in Education 24 (1999): 1-19, esp. p. 8; Reimers and McGinn (n. 3 above); Rokicka (n. 4 above), p. 17.
62. Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above); Robert Donmoyer, "Empirical Research as Solution and Problem: Two Narratives of Knowledge Use," International Journal of Educational Research 23, no. 2 (1995): 151-67, esp. 152; Joyce Epstein; Torsten Husén, "Educational Research at the Crossroads? An Exercise in Self-Criticism," Prospects 19, no. 3 (1989): 351-60; Kennedy (n. 16 above); Levin; Karen Seashore Louis, "Making Meaning of the Relationship between Research and Policy: An Epilogue," Educational Policy 13, no. 1 (1999); Marshall; Miller and Fredericks; William Reese, "What History Teaches about the Impact of Educational Research on Practice," Review of Research in Education 24 (1999): 1-19, esp. p. 8; Reimers and McGinn (n. 3 above); Rokicka (n. 4 above), p. 17.
63. Weiss, "Perspectives on Knowledge Use," p. 415. Richard Allington and Haley Woodside-Jiron ("The Politics of Literacy Teaching: How 'Research' Shaped Educational Policy," Educational Researcher 28, no. 8 [1999]: 4-13, quotation on 11) conclude that "the use of 'research' as a policy advocacy tool seems less dependent on the reliability of synthesis of research than on the ability to place 'research' summaries that support particular policy agendas into the hands of advocates and policymakers."
64. Weiss, "Perspectives on Knowledge Use," p. 415. Richard Allington and Haley Woodside-Jiron ("The Politics of Literacy Teaching: How 'Research' Shaped Educational Policy," Educational Researcher 28, no. 8 [1999]: 4-13, quotation on 11) conclude that "the use of 'research' as a policy advocacy tool seems less dependent on the reliability of synthesis of research than on the ability to place 'research' summaries that support particular policy agendas into the hands of advocates and policymakers."
65. An important limitation of this discussion is that it is based on literature produced by theorists/ researchers. Thus, the two cultures are being viewed from the (admittedly multiple) perspectives of members of only one of the communities.
66. Weiss, "Perspectives on Knowledge Use" (n. 9 above), pp. 410-11; see also Rokicka. Dunn ("Studying Knowledge Use" [n. 1 above], p. 390) also distinguishes social science research knowledge from "common sense," "casual empiricism," and "thoughtful speculation and analysis," but argues categorical distinctions, such as "'science-based' and 'ordinary' knowledge [as well as] 'professional social inquiry' and 'casual empiricism' [are] a product of the meanings and subjective judgments of researchers, and not of those whom such categories are applied."
67. Weiss, "Perspectives on Knowledge Use" (n. 9 above), pp. 410-11; see also Rokicka. Dunn ("Studying Knowledge Use" [n. 1 above], p. 390) also distinguishes social science research knowledge from "common sense," "casual empiricism," and "thoughtful speculation and analysis," but argues categorical distinctions, such as "'science-based' and 'ordinary' knowledge [as well as] 'professional social inquiry' and 'casual empiricism' [are] a product of the meanings and subjective judgments of researchers, and not of those whom such categories are applied."
68. Biddle and Anderson, p. 16.
69. Don Adams, Geok Hwa Kee, and Lin Lin, "Linking Research, Policy, and Strategic Planning to Education Development in Lao, People's Democratic Republic," in this issue.
70. Donmoyer, p. 157; see also Reese, p. 13.
71. Donald Pan, "Ivory Tower and Red Tape: Reply to Adler," Telos 86 (1990): 12; see also Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmelfarb, "Introduction," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 1-4; Mark Ginsburg, Don Adams, Thomas Clayton, Martha Mantilla, Judy Sylvester, and Yidan Wang, "The Politics of Linking Educational Research, Policy and Practice: The Case of Improving Educational Quality in Ghana, Guatemala, and Mali," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 41, no. 1 (2000): 27-47; Thomas Popkewitz, A Political Sociology of Educational Reform: Power/Knowledge in Teaching, Teacher Education and Research (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991).
72. Donald Pan, "Ivory Tower and Red Tape: Reply to Adler," Telos 86 (1990): 12; see also Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmelfarb, "Introduction," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 1-4; Mark Ginsburg, Don Adams, Thomas Clayton, Martha Mantilla, Judy Sylvester, and Yidan Wang, "The Politics of Linking Educational Research, Policy and Practice: The Case of Improving Educational Quality in Ghana, Guatemala, and Mali," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 41, no. 1 (2000): 27-47; Thomas Popkewitz, A Political Sociology of Educational Reform: Power/Knowledge in Teaching, Teacher Education and Research (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991).
73. Donald Pan, "Ivory Tower and Red Tape: Reply to Adler," Telos 86 (1990): 12; see also Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmelfarb, "Introduction," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 1-4; Mark Ginsburg, Don Adams, Thomas Clayton, Martha Mantilla, Judy Sylvester, and Yidan Wang, "The Politics of Linking Educational Research, Policy and Practice: The Case of Improving Educational Quality in Ghana, Guatemala, and Mali," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 41, no. 1 (2000): 27-47; Thomas Popkewitz, A Political Sociology of Educational Reform: Power/Knowledge in Teaching, Teacher Education and Research (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991).
74. Donald Pan, "Ivory Tower and Red Tape: Reply to Adler," Telos 86 (1990): 12; see also Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmelfarb, "Introduction," Sociology of Education ("Sociology and Educational Policy: Bringing Scholarship and Practice Together," ed. Peter Cookson, Joseph Conaty, and Harold Himmerfarb) 69 (1996): 1-4; Mark Ginsburg, Don Adams, Thomas Clayton, Martha Mantilla, Judy Sylvester, and Yidan Wang, "The Politics of Linking Educational Research, Policy and Practice: The Case of Improving Educational Quality in Ghana, Guatemala, and Mali," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 41, no. 1 (2000): 27-47; Thomas Popkewitz, A Political Sociology of Educational Reform: Power/Knowledge in Teaching, Teacher Education and Research (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991).
75. E. Vance Randall, Bruce Cooper, and Steven Hite, "Understanding the
76. Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above). Note that although sometimes the research sponsor/funder can be viewed as a third party, at other times research and evaluation studies are financially supported by policy-maker and practitioner organizations (e.g., local, provincial, and national governments; international agencies; and teacher or administrator organizations).
77. Robert Burgess, "Biting the Hand That Feeds You? Educational Research for Policy and Practice," in Burgess, ed. (n. 5 above), pp. 1-18, quotation on p. 1. See also Ginsburg et al., "The Politics of Linking." Note how all three of the studies that Klemperer, Theisens, and Kaiser (n. 14 above) discuss could be considered to be focused on the economic functions of higher education as conceived within a functionalist or neoliberal framework: market mechanisms, competitive research funding, and limiting student enrollment in higher education.
78. Robert Burgess, "Biting the Hand That Feeds You? Educational Research for Policy and Practice," in Burgess, ed. (n. 5 above), pp. 1-18, quotation on p. 1. See also Ginsburg et al., "The Politics of Linking." Note how all three of the studies that Klemperer, Theisens, and Kaiser (n. 14 above) discuss could be considered to be focused on the economic functions of higher education as conceived within a functionalist or neoliberal framework: market mechanisms, competitive research funding, and limiting student enrollment in higher education.
79. Psacharopoulos (n. 2 above), p. 370. Don Adams ("Analysis without Theory Is Incomplete," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 [1990]: 381-85) reminds Psacharopoulous that the technocratic rationality perspective on educational planning is not the one he views as the most adequate. See also Don Adams, "Extending the Educational Planning Discourse," Comparative Education Review 32, no. 4 (November 1988): 400-415.
80. Psacharopoulos (n. 2 above), p. 370. Don Adams ("Analysis without Theory Is Incomplete," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 [1990]: 381-85) reminds Psacharopoulous that the technocratic rationality perspective on educational planning is not the one he views as the most adequate. See also Don Adams, "Extending the Educational Planning Discourse," Comparative Education Review 32, no. 4 (November 1988): 400-415.
81. Psacharopoulos (n. 2 above), p. 370. Don Adams ("Analysis without Theory Is Incomplete," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 [1990]: 381-85) reminds Psacharopoulous that the technocratic rationality perspective on educational planning is not the one he views as the most adequate. See also Don Adams, "Extending the Educational Planning Discourse," Comparative Education Review 32, no. 4 (November 1988): 400-415.
82. Donald Schon, "The New Scholarship Requires a New Epistemology," Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 27, no. 6 (1995): 28-34, quotation on 29; the latter is quoted in Gary Anderson and Kathryn Herr, "The New Paradigm Wars: Is There Room for Rigorous Practitioner Knowledge in Schools and Universities?" Educational Researcher 28, no. 5 (1999): 12-21, quotation on 13. As he continues, however, Schon (Anderson and Herr, p. 29) indicates that knowledge from theorists/researchers is needed to take practice to a higher, professional level, and he states that "the instrumental practice becomes professional when it is based on the science or systematic knowledge produced by the schools of higher learning."
83. Donald Schon, "The New Scholarship Requires a New Epistemology," Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 27, no. 6 (1995): 28-34, quotation on 29; the latter is quoted in Gary Anderson and Kathryn Herr, "The New Paradigm Wars: Is There Room for Rigorous Practitioner Knowledge in Schools and Universities?" Educational Researcher 28, no. 5 (1999): 12-21, quotation on 13. As he continues, however, Schon (Anderson and Herr, p. 29) indicates that knowledge from theorists/researchers is needed to take practice to a higher, professional level, and he states that "the instrumental practice becomes professional when it is based on the science or systematic knowledge produced by the schools of higher learning."
84. Gene Hall ("The Local Educational Change Process and Policy Implementation," in International Perspectives on Educational Reform and Policy Implementation, ed. David Carter and Mamie O'Neille [Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1995], pp. 94-107, quotation on p. 101) makes the interesting observation that not only is there a "perennial . . . gap in perspectives, semantics, and scope" between policy makers and practitioners, but a similar gap exists between "researchers of policy and [researchers of] practice."
85. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
86. Robert Merton, "On Sociological Theories of the Middle Range," in his Social Theory and Social Structure (New York: Free Press, 1968), pp. 39-72.
87. For example, Margaret Sutton ("Policy Research as Ethnographic Refusal: The Calculus of Women's Literacy in Nepal," in Levinson and Sutton, eds. [n. 13 above], pp. 183-99) discusses the differences in "norms of practice" between researchers based primarily in universities, on the one hand, and those consulting for or serving as a regular employee in international education development assistance agencies, on the other. Edmund King ("Observations from Outside and Decisions Inside," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 [1990]: 392-95) notes, however, that "even practically oriented scholars as those observing educational decision making from the World Bank, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), or other international organizations may be just as remote from reality and just as arrogant as those looking down from the 'dreaming spires' of academe. Moreover, they are the slaves of fashion" (pp. 392-93).
88. For example, Margaret Sutton ("Policy Research as Ethnographic Refusal: The Calculus of Women's Literacy in Nepal," in Levinson and Sutton, eds. [n. 13 above], pp. 183-99) discusses the differences in "norms of practice" between researchers based primarily in universities, on the one hand, and those consulting for or serving as a regular employee in international education development assistance agencies, on the other. Edmund King ("Observations from Outside and Decisions Inside," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 [1990]: 392-95) notes, however, that "even practically oriented scholars as those observing educational decision making from the World Bank, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), or other international organizations may be just as remote from reality and just as arrogant as those looking down from the 'dreaming spires' of academe. Moreover, they are the slaves of fashion" (pp. 392-93).
89. Terence Hopkins and Immanuel Wallerstein, World Systems Analysis: Theory and Methodolgy (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1982).
90. Graham Vulliamy, Keith Lewin, and David Stephens, Doing Educational Research in Developing Countries (London: Falmer, 1990), p. 4.
91. See Rolland G. Paulston, "Social and Educational Change: Conceptual Frameworks," Comparative Education Review (Special Issue: The State of the Art) 21 (June/October, 1977): 370-95; Gail Kelly, "Debates and Trends in Comparative Education," in Emergent Issues in Education: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Robert Arnove, Philip Altbach, and Gail Kelly (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), pp. 13-22; Erwin Epstein, "Currents Left and Right: Ideology in Comparative Education," in New Approaches in Comparative Education, ed. Philip Altbach and Gail Kelly (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Raymond Morrow and Carlos Alberto Torres, Social Theory and Education: A Critique of Theories of Social and Cultural Reproduction (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).
92. See Rolland G. Paulston, "Social and Educational Change: Conceptual Frameworks," Comparative Education Review (Special Issue: The State of the Art) 21 (June/October, 1977): 370-95; Gail Kelly, "Debates and Trends in Comparative Education," in Emergent Issues in Education: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Robert Arnove, Philip Altbach, and Gail Kelly (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), pp. 13-22; Erwin Epstein, "Currents Left and Right: Ideology in Comparative Education," in New Approaches in Comparative Education, ed. Philip Altbach and Gail Kelly (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Raymond Morrow and Carlos Alberto Torres, Social Theory and Education: A Critique of Theories of Social and Cultural Reproduction (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).
93. See Rolland G. Paulston, "Social and Educational Change: Conceptual Frameworks," Comparative Education Review (Special Issue: The State of the Art) 21 (June/October, 1977): 370-95; Gail Kelly, "Debates and Trends in Comparative Education," in Emergent Issues in Education: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Robert Arnove, Philip Altbach, and Gail Kelly (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), pp. 13-22; Erwin Epstein, "Currents Left and Right: Ideology in Comparative Education," in New Approaches in Comparative Education, ed. Philip Altbach and Gail Kelly (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Raymond Morrow and Carlos Alberto Torres, Social Theory and Education: A Critique of Theories of Social and Cultural Reproduction (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).
94. See Rolland G. Paulston, "Social and Educational Change: Conceptual Frameworks," Comparative Education Review (Special Issue: The State of the Art) 21 (June/October, 1977): 370-95; Gail Kelly, "Debates and Trends in Comparative Education," in Emergent Issues in Education: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Robert Arnove, Philip Altbach, and Gail Kelly (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), pp. 13-22; Erwin Epstein, "Currents Left and Right: Ideology in Comparative Education," in New Approaches in Comparative Education, ed. Philip Altbach and Gail Kelly (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Raymond Morrow and Carlos Alberto Torres, Social Theory and Education: A Critique of Theories of Social and Cultural Reproduction (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).
95. See Thomas Popkewitz, "Paradigms in Educational Science: Different Meanings and Purposes to Theory," in his Paradigm and Ideology in Educational Research: The Social Functions of the Intellectual (New York: Falmer, 1984); Vaudra Masemann, "Critical Ethnography in the Study of Comparative Education," in Altbach and Kelly, eds. (n. 48 above). Biddle and Anderson ([n. 2 above], p. 12) argue that "various forms of research are associated with the production of different types of knowledge elements" that have meaning because they are embedded within systems of thought and investigation (paradigms) and that thus research produces different types of knowledge that may (or may not) be useful to diverse educators.
96. See Thomas Popkewitz, "Paradigms in Educational Science: Different Meanings and Purposes to Theory," in his Paradigm and Ideology in Educational Research: The Social Functions of the Intellectual (New York: Falmer, 1984); Vaudra Masemann, "Critical Ethnography in the Study of Comparative Education," in Altbach and Kelly, eds. (n. 48 above). Biddle and Anderson ([n. 2 above], p. 12) argue that "various forms of research are associated with the production of different types of knowledge elements" that have meaning because they are embedded within systems of thought and investigation (paradigms) and that thus research produces different types of knowledge that may (or may not) be useful to diverse educators.
97. Auriat (n. 25 above) identifies the disciplinary divide as one of the obstacles for conducting policy-relevant research.
98. Vulliamy, Lewin, and Stephens, p. 212. Miala Diambomba ("Research and External Aid: A View from the Recipient Side," Prospects 11, no. 3 [1981]: 351-59, see p. 355) warns of the danger if international development research activity is reduced to "a mere exercise in the re-creation of 'Western research environments' in the Third World."
99. Vulliamy, Lewin, and Stephens, p. 212. Miala Diambomba ("Research and External Aid: A View from the Recipient Side," Prospects 11, no. 3 [1981]: 351-59, see p. 355) warns of the danger if international development research activity is reduced to "a mere exercise in the re-creation of 'Western research environments' in the Third World."
100. See Burton Clark, The Higher Education System: Academic Organization in Cross-National Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).
101. With this power structure in mind, Randall, Cooper, and Hite (n. 36 above, p. 8) claim that as "the cloak of neutrality in both research and education is being discarded . . . going 'political' could challenge the hegemony of those in charge of the research enterprise, the distribution of research monies, the publication of results, and the awarding of tenure."
102. See Philip Altbach, The Knowledge Context: Comparative Perspectives on the Distribution of Knowledge (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); Birgit Brock-Utne, Whose Education for All? The Recolonization of the African Mind (New York: Falmer, 2000); John Weaver, Rethinking Academic Politics (New York: Routledge, 2000).
103. See Philip Altbach, The Knowledge Context: Comparative Perspectives on the Distribution of Knowledge (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); Birgit Brock-Utne, Whose Education for All? The Recolonization of the African Mind (New York: Falmer, 2000); John Weaver, Rethinking Academic Politics (New York: Routledge, 2000).
104. See Philip Altbach, The Knowledge Context: Comparative Perspectives on the Distribution of Knowledge (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); Birgit Brock-Utne, Whose Education for All? The Recolonization of the African Mind (New York: Falmer, 2000); John Weaver, Rethinking Academic Politics (New York: Routledge, 2000).
105. For example, see Peter Cowden and David K. Cohen, Divergent Worlds of Practice: The Federal Reform of Local Schools in the Experimental Schools Program (Cambridge, Mass.: Huron Institute, 1979); Michael Fullan with Suzanne Stiegelbauer, The New Meaning of Educational Change, 2d ed. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991); Hall (n. 42 above). However, following Bradley Levinson and Margaret Sutton ("Policy as Practice: A Sociocultural Approach to the Study of Educational Policy," in Levinson and Sutton, eds. [n. 13 above], pp. 1-18, see p. 1), it seems useful not to overstate the division between policy and practice. They reconceptualize "the notion of policy itself as a complex social practice, an ongoing process of normative cultural production constituted by diverse actors across diverse social and institutional contexts." Similarly, Donmoyer ([n. 28 above], p. 152) comments that "classrooms are important policy-making arenas and . . . teachers are significant policy-makers"; Joyce Epstein ([n. 24 above], p. 12) suggests that "educational policies are expressed by teachers and administrators in their daily activities with children, families, and other educators"; and Reimers and McGinn ([n. 3 above], p. 118) consider that policy-making actors include "parents and students[,] . . . teachers and principals[,] and the larger communities where schools are located, etc."
106. For example, see Peter Cowden and David K. Cohen, Divergent Worlds of Practice: The Federal Reform of Local Schools in the Experimental Schools Program (Cambridge, Mass.: Huron Institute, 1979); Michael Fullan with Suzanne Stiegelbauer, The New Meaning of Educational Change, 2d ed. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991); Hall (n. 42 above). However, following Bradley Levinson and Margaret Sutton ("Policy as Practice: A Sociocultural Approach to the Study of Educational Policy," in Levinson and Sutton, eds. [n. 13 above], pp. 1-18, see p. 1), it seems useful not to overstate the division between policy and practice. They reconceptualize "the notion of policy itself as a complex social practice, an ongoing process of normative cultural production constituted by diverse actors across diverse social and institutional contexts." Similarly, Donmoyer ([n. 28 above], p. 152) comments that "classrooms are important policy-making arenas and . . . teachers are significant policy-makers"; Joyce Epstein ([n. 24 above], p. 12) suggests that "educational policies are expressed by teachers and administrators in their daily activities with children, families, and other educators"; and Reimers and McGinn ([n. 3 above], p. 118) consider that policy-making actors include "parents and students[,] . . . teachers and principals[,] and the larger communities where schools are located, etc."
107. For example, see Peter Cowden and David K. Cohen, Divergent Worlds of Practice: The Federal Reform of Local Schools in the Experimental Schools Program (Cambridge, Mass.: Huron Institute, 1979); Michael Fullan with Suzanne Stiegelbauer, The New Meaning of Educational Change, 2d ed. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991); Hall (n. 42 above). However, following Bradley Levinson and Margaret Sutton ("Policy as Practice: A Sociocultural Approach to the Study of Educational Policy," in Levinson and Sutton, eds. [n. 13 above], pp. 1-18, see p. 1), it seems useful not to overstate the division between policy and practice. They reconceptualize "the notion of policy itself as a complex social practice, an ongoing process of normative cultural production constituted by diverse actors across diverse social and institutional contexts." Similarly, Donmoyer ([n. 28 above], p. 152) comments that "classrooms are important policy-making arenas and . . . teachers are significant policy-makers"; Joyce Epstein ([n. 24 above], p. 12) suggests that "educational policies are expressed by teachers and administrators in their daily activities with children, families, and other educators"; and Reimers and McGinn ([n. 3 above], p. 118) consider that policy-making actors include "parents and students[,] . . . teachers and principals[,] and the larger communities where schools are located, etc."
108. On the topic of the separation of conception and execution as a part of the proletarianization process, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review, 1974); Mark Ginsburg, "Professionalism or Politics as a Model for Educators' Work and Lives," Educational Research Journal 11, no. 2 (1996): 133-46; Magali Larson, "Proletarianization of Educated Labor," Theory and Society 9, no. 11 (1980): 131-75.
109. On the topic of the separation of conception and execution as a part of the proletarianization process, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review, 1974); Mark Ginsburg, "Professionalism or Politics as a Model for Educators' Work and Lives," Educational Research Journal 11, no. 2 (1996): 133-46; Magali Larson, "Proletarianization of Educated Labor," Theory and Society 9, no. 11 (1980): 131-75.
110. On the topic of the separation of conception and execution as a part of the proletarianization process, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review, 1974); Mark Ginsburg, "Professionalism or Politics as a Model for Educators' Work and Lives," Educational Research Journal 11, no. 2 (1996): 133-46; Magali Larson, "Proletarianization of Educated Labor," Theory and Society 9, no. 11 (1980): 131-75.
111. See Stephen Ball and Colin Lacey, "Subject Disciplines as the Opportunity for Group Action: A Measured Critique of Subject Sub-Cultures," in Teacher Strategies: Explorations in the Sociology of the School, ed. Peter Woods (London: Croom Helm, 1980).
112. Joseph Carasco, Nancy Clair, and Lawrence Kanyike, "Enhancing Dialogue among Researchers, Policy Makers, and Community Members in Uganda: Complexities, Possibilities, and Persistent Questions," in this issue.
113. Husén (n. 28 above), p. 359.
114. Lawrence Saha, Bruce Biddle, and Don Anderson, "Attitudes towards Education Research Knowledge and Policymaking among American and Australian School Principals," International Journal of Educational Research 23, no. 2 (1995): 113-25, see 123-24.
115. Mark Bray and Steve Packer, Education in Small States: Concepts, Challenges and Strategies (New York: Pergamon, 1993).
116. John Hawkins and Thomas La Belle, eds., Education and Intergroup Relations: An International Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1985).
117. Philip Altbach, "Professors and Politics: An International Perspective," in Ginsburg, ed. (n. 11 above).
118. Jon Wagner, "Administrators as Ethnographers: School as Context for Inquiry and Action," Anthropology and Education Quarterly 21, no. 3 (1990): 195-221, see pp. 211-12.
119. LaVerne Ludden and George Wood, "Practice Driven Research: A Model for Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice," Lifelong Learning 10, no. 5 (1987): 21-25, see p. 25.
120. J. Kenneth Benson, "The Underdevelopment of Theory and the Problem of Practice," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 (1990): 385-92. Similarly, Paul Goodman ("Critical Issues in Doing Research That Contributes to Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler et al. [n. 5 above], pp. 324-42) notes that different definitions of research (as a process and/or as forms of knowledge) and of practice (as behavior and/or as cognitive processes) lead to different conclusions concerning how research and practice can/should be linked.
121. J. Kenneth Benson, "The Underdevelopment of Theory and the Problem of Practice," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 3 (1990): 385-92. Similarly, Paul Goodman ("Critical Issues in Doing Research That Contributes to Theory and Practice," in Doing Research That is Useful for Theory and Practice, ed. Edward Lawler et al. [n. 5 above], pp. 324-42) notes that different definitions of research (as a process and/or as forms of knowledge) and of practice (as behavior and/or as cognitive processes) lead to different conclusions concerning how research and practice can/should be linked.
122. Carasco, Clair, and Kanyike.
123. Laurel Puchner, "Researching Women's Literacy in Mali: A Case Study of Dialogue among Researchers, Practitioners, and Policy Makers," in this issue.
124. Adams, Kee, and Linn (n. 33 above); Klemperer, Theisens, and Kaiser (n. 14 above).
125. This section draws on and elaborates discussions presented in Adams et al., "Linking Research to Policy and Practice to Improve Educational Quality" (n. 13 above); Ginsburg et al., "The Politics of Linking" (n. 35 above); Mark Ginsburg and Leopold Klopfer (with Thomas Clayton, Michel Rakotomanana, Judy Sylvester, and Katherine Yasin), "Choices in Conducting Classroom-Anchored Research to Improve Educational Quality in 'Developing' Countries," Research Papers in Education 11, no. 3 (1996): 239-54.
126. This section draws on and elaborates discussions presented in Adams et al., "Linking Research to Policy and Practice to Improve Educational Quality" (n. 13 above); Ginsburg et al., "The Politics of Linking" (n. 35 above); Mark Ginsburg and Leopold Klopfer (with Thomas Clayton, Michel Rakotomanana, Judy Sylvester, and Katherine Yasin), "Choices in Conducting Classroom-Anchored Research to Improve Educational Quality in 'Developing' Countries," Research Papers in Education 11, no. 3 (1996): 239-54.
127. This section draws on and elaborates discussions presented in Adams et al., "Linking Research to Policy and Practice to Improve Educational Quality" (n. 13 above); Ginsburg et al., "The Politics of Linking" (n. 35 above); Mark Ginsburg and Leopold Klopfer (with Thomas Clayton, Michel Rakotomanana, Judy Sylvester, and Katherine Yasin), "Choices in Conducting Classroom-Anchored Research to Improve Educational Quality in 'Developing' Countries," Research Papers in Education 11, no. 3 (1996): 239-54.
128. Some of the proposed approaches involve changing individuals or group cultures (see Reimers and McGinn [n. 3 above], p. 23), while others have targeted changing the working relationships of members of the two groups (see L. Neville Postlethwaite, "Research and Policy Making in Education: Some Possible Links," in Anderson and Biddle, eds. [n. 2 above]). The former activities (what might be called capacity development) are likely to be a necessary part of the latter. However, changing individuals' knowledge, skills, and attitudes is unlikely to be sufficient for bringing about the structural changes implied in the latter set of approaches.
129. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Seabury, 1970), p. 77. Some might question the use of Freire's concept of dialogue, which he developed in the context of analyzing pedagogical relations between teachers and students, as appropriate for framing a discussion of the relationship between theorists/researchers and policy makers/practitioners. However, one should remember that Freire (a) focused much of his attention on adult education, (b) gave importance to research activity as a means of collaborative naming/changing the world, and (c) devoted some attention to the activities of research specialists in the context of what we term "collective research and praxis" (see discussion below). On the latter point, Paulo Freire (The Politics of Education: Culture, Power and Liberation [New York: Bergin & Garvey, 1985], p. 156) comments: "Precisely because consciousness is not transformed except in praxis, the theoretical context [which offer reasons, e.g., of peasants' condition of oppression and exploitation] cannot be reduced to an uninvolved research center" (emphasis added).
130. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Seabury, 1970), p. 77. Some might question the use of Freire's concept of dialogue, which he developed in the context of analyzing pedagogical relations between teachers and students, as appropriate for framing a discussion of the relationship between theorists/researchers and policy makers/practitioners. However, one should remember that Freire (a) focused much of his attention on adult education, (b) gave importance to research activity as a means of collaborative naming/changing the world, and (c) devoted some attention to the activities of research specialists in the context of what we term "collective research and praxis" (see discussion below). On the latter point, Paulo Freire (The Politics of Education: Culture, Power and Liberation [New York: Bergin & Garvey, 1985], p. 156) comments: "Precisely because consciousness is not transformed except in praxis, the theoretical context [which offer reasons, e.g., of peasants' condition of oppression and exploitation] cannot be reduced to an uninvolved research center" (emphasis added).
131. For reference as "knowledge brokers," see Dunn, "Conceptualizing Knowledge Use" (n. 9 above), p. 328; Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above), p. 121. For reference as "linkers," see Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation through Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1969); for reference as "research brokers," see John Sunquist, "Research Brokerage: The Weak," in Knowledge and Policy: The Uncertain Connection, ed. Lawrence Lynn (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1978), pp. 36-51. For reference as "translators," see Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Jeffrey G. Reitz, An Introduction to Applied Sociology (New York: Elsevier, 1975).
132. For reference as "knowledge brokers," see Dunn, "Conceptualizing Knowledge Use" (n. 9 above), p. 328; Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above), p. 121. For reference as "linkers," see Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation through Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1969); for reference as "research brokers," see John Sunquist, "Research Brokerage: The Weak," in Knowledge and Policy: The Uncertain Connection, ed. Lawrence Lynn (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1978), pp. 36-51. For reference as "translators," see Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Jeffrey G. Reitz, An Introduction to Applied Sociology (New York: Elsevier, 1975).
133. For reference as "knowledge brokers," see Dunn, "Conceptualizing Knowledge Use" (n. 9 above), p. 328; Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above), p. 121. For reference as "linkers," see Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation through Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1969); for reference as "research brokers," see John Sunquist, "Research Brokerage: The Weak," in Knowledge and Policy: The Uncertain Connection, ed. Lawrence Lynn (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1978), pp. 36-51. For reference as "translators," see Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Jeffrey G. Reitz, An Introduction to Applied Sociology (New York: Elsevier, 1975).
134. For reference as "knowledge brokers," see Dunn, "Conceptualizing Knowledge Use" (n. 9 above), p. 328; Biddle and Anderson (n. 2 above), p. 121. For reference as "linkers," see Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation through Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1969); for reference as "research brokers," see John Sunquist, "Research Brokerage: The Weak," in Knowledge and Policy: The Uncertain Connection, ed. Lawrence Lynn (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1978), pp. 36-51. For reference as "translators," see Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Jeffrey G. Reitz, An Introduction to Applied Sociology (New York: Elsevier, 1975).
135. Hallinan (n. 2 above), pp. 133-34.
136. Adams, Kee, and Lin.
137. Joyce Epstein (n. 24 above), p. 6.
138. Biddle and Anderson.
139. Puchner (n. 68 above).
140. Joyce Epstein, p. 6.
141. Saha, Biddle, and Anderson (n. 60 above).
142. Nevertheless, Joyce Epstein suggests that the involvement of practitioners (and, by implication, policy makers) in research activities may provide more opportunities and make it easier for them to communicate with theorists and researchers.
143. Anderson and Herr ([n. 41 above], p. 16) explain that "practitioner research" has its own forms of validity (outcome, process, democratic or local, catalytic, dialogic). Quotation in text is ibid, p. 83.
144. Regarding administrators as researchers, see Carolyn Riehl, Colleen L. Larson, Paula M. Short, and Ulrich Reitzug, "Reconceptualizing Research and Scholarship in Educational Administration: Learning to Know, Knowing to Do, Doing to Learn," Educational Administration Quarterly 36, no. 3 (2000): 391-427; Wagner, "Administrators as Ethnographers" (n. 64 above). Regarding teacher research, see Dixie Goswami and Peter Stillman. Reclaiming the Classroom: Teacher Research as an Agency for Change (Upper Montclair, N.J.: Boynton/Cooke, 1987).
145. Regarding administrators as researchers, see Carolyn Riehl, Colleen L. Larson, Paula M. Short, and Ulrich Reitzug, "Reconceptualizing Research and Scholarship in Educational Administration: Learning to Know, Knowing to Do, Doing to Learn," Educational Administration Quarterly 36, no. 3 (2000): 391-427; Wagner, "Administrators as Ethnographers" (n. 64 above). Regarding teacher research, see Dixie Goswami and Peter Stillman. Reclaiming the Classroom: Teacher Research as an Agency for Change (Upper Montclair, N.J.: Boynton/Cooke, 1987).
146. See Joyce Epstein, p. 19.
147. Puchner (n. 68 above).
148. Regarding "applied research," see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use" (n. 1 above), p. 370. Regarding "case study," see Michael Crossley and Robin Burns ("Case Study in Comparative and International Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap," in Comparative and International Studies and the Theory and Practice of Education, Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society, ed. Barry Sheehan (Hamilton, New Zealand: ANZIES, 1983), pp. 1-18, see pp. 1 and 13) describe case study in comparative and international education as a way to address "an apparent polarization between theorists and practitioners," since it provides "a way to interrelate the theory and 'reality' of education . . . [focusing on] the actual day-to-day activities of educational practitioners and their clients . . . can lead to . . . greater cross-fertilization . . . between theory and practice." Regarding "clinical partnerships," see Jon Wagner, "The Unavoidable Intervention of Educational Research: A Framework for Reconsidering Researcher-Practitioner Cooperation," Educational Researcher 26, no. 7 (1997): 13-22, see p. 16. Wagner observes that "all educational research in schools involves [communication and] cooperation of one form or another between researchers and practitioners" (p. 13), but he notes that such communication generally gets formalized as "data-extraction agreements" (negotiated so that researchers can do the research they have designed) (p. 15). Regarding "evaluation research," see Cousins and Leithwood (n. 5 above). Regarding "interest-(vs. curiosity-) driven research," see Auriat (n. 25 above), p. 275. Regarding "policy-relevant research," see Peter Coleman and Linda LaRoque, "Linking Educational Research and Educational Policy via Policy-Relevant Research," Alberta Journal of Educational Research 29, no. 3 (1983): 242-55, see p. 243. Regarding "policy research," Reimers and McGinn ([n. 3 above], p. 23) explain that policy research "is designed to anticipate the consequences of action . . . as opposed to research designed to explain why the world is the way it is without describing how it could be made different." Regarding "practice-driven research," see Ludden and Wood, pp. 21-25. Weiss ("The Many Meanings" [n. 4 above], p. 181) concludes that "it is time for social scientists to pay attention to the imperatives of policy-making systems and to consider soberly what they can do, not necessarily to increase the use of research, but to improve the contribution that research makes to the wisdom of social policy." See also Meyer and Baker (n. 5 above); Pettigrew (n. 5 above), pp. 225-26; Psacharopoulos (n. 86 above), p. 380.
149. Regarding "applied research," see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use" (n. 1 above), p. 370. Regarding "case study," see Michael Crossley and Robin Burns ("Case Study in Comparative and International Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap," in Comparative and International Studies and the Theory and Practice of Education, Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society, ed. Barry Sheehan (Hamilton, New Zealand: ANZIES, 1983), pp. 1-18, see pp. 1 and 13) describe case study in comparative and international education as a way to address "an apparent polarization between theorists and practitioners," since it provides "a way to interrelate the theory and 'reality' of education . . . [focusing on] the actual day-to-day activities of educational practitioners and their clients . . . can lead to . . . greater cross-fertilization . . . between theory and practice." Regarding "clinical partnerships," see Jon Wagner, "The Unavoidable Intervention of Educational Research: A Framework for Reconsidering Researcher-Practitioner Cooperation," Educational Researcher 26, no. 7 (1997): 13-22, see p. 16. Wagner observes that "all educational research in schools involves [communication and] cooperation of one form or another between researchers and practitioners" (p. 13), but he notes that such communication generally gets formalized as "data-extraction agreements" (negotiated so that researchers can do the research they have designed) (p. 15). Regarding "evaluation research," see Cousins and Leithwood (n. 5 above). Regarding "interest-(vs. curiosity-) driven research," see Auriat (n. 25 above), p. 275. Regarding "policy-relevant research," see Peter Coleman and Linda LaRoque, "Linking Educational Research and Educational Policy via Policy-Relevant Research," Alberta Journal of Educational Research 29, no. 3 (1983): 242-55, see p. 243. Regarding "policy research," Reimers and McGinn ([n. 3 above], p. 23) explain that policy research "is designed to anticipate the consequences of action . . . as opposed to research designed to explain why the world is the way it is without describing how it could be made different." Regarding "practice-driven research," see Ludden and Wood, pp. 21-25. Weiss ("The Many Meanings" [n. 4 above], p. 181) concludes that "it is time for social scientists to pay attention to the imperatives of policy-making systems and to consider soberly what they can do, not necessarily to increase the use of research, but to improve the contribution that research makes to the wisdom of social policy." See also Meyer and Baker (n. 5 above); Pettigrew (n. 5 above), pp. 225-26; Psacharopoulos (n. 86 above), p. 380.
150. Regarding "applied research," see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use" (n. 1 above), p. 370. Regarding "case study," see Michael Crossley and Robin Burns ("Case Study in Comparative and International Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap," in Comparative and International Studies and the Theory and Practice of Education, Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society, ed. Barry Sheehan (Hamilton, New Zealand: ANZIES, 1983), pp. 1-18, see pp. 1 and 13) describe case study in comparative and international education as a way to address "an apparent polarization between theorists and practitioners," since it provides "a way to interrelate the theory and 'reality' of education . . . [focusing on] the actual day-to-day activities of educational practitioners and their clients . . . can lead to . . . greater cross-fertilization . . . between theory and practice." Regarding "clinical partnerships," see Jon Wagner, "The Unavoidable Intervention of Educational Research: A Framework for Reconsidering Researcher-Practitioner Cooperation," Educational Researcher 26, no. 7 (1997): 13-22, see p. 16. Wagner observes that "all educational research in schools involves [communication and] cooperation of one form or another between researchers and practitioners" (p. 13), but he notes that such communication generally gets formalized as "data-extraction agreements" (negotiated so that researchers can do the research they have designed) (p. 15). Regarding "evaluation research," see Cousins and Leithwood (n. 5 above). Regarding "interest-(vs. curiosity-) driven research," see Auriat (n. 25 above), p. 275. Regarding "policy-relevant research," see Peter Coleman and Linda LaRoque, "Linking Educational Research and Educational Policy via Policy-Relevant Research," Alberta Journal of Educational Research 29, no. 3 (1983): 242-55, see p. 243. Regarding "policy research," Reimers and McGinn ([n. 3 above], p. 23) explain that policy research "is designed to anticipate the consequences of action . . . as opposed to research designed to explain why the world is the way it is without describing how it could be made different." Regarding "practice-driven research," see Ludden and Wood, pp. 21-25. Weiss ("The Many Meanings" [n. 4 above], p. 181) concludes that "it is time for social scientists to pay attention to the imperatives of policy-making systems and to consider soberly what they can do, not necessarily to increase the use of research, but to improve the contribution that research makes to the wisdom of social policy." See also Meyer and Baker (n. 5 above); Pettigrew (n. 5 above), pp. 225-26; Psacharopoulos (n. 86 above), p. 380.
151. Regarding "applied research," see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use" (n. 1 above), p. 370. Regarding "case study," see Michael Crossley and Robin Burns ("Case Study in Comparative and International Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap," in Comparative and International Studies and the Theory and Practice of Education, Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society, ed. Barry Sheehan (Hamilton, New Zealand: ANZIES, 1983), pp. 1-18, see pp. 1 and 13) describe case study in comparative and international education as a way to address "an apparent polarization between theorists and practitioners," since it provides "a way to interrelate the theory and 'reality' of education . . . [focusing on] the actual day-to-day activities of educational practitioners and their clients . . . can lead to . . . greater cross-fertilization . . . between theory and practice." Regarding "clinical partnerships," see Jon Wagner, "The Unavoidable Intervention of Educational Research: A Framework for Reconsidering Researcher-Practitioner Cooperation," Educational Researcher 26, no. 7 (1997): 13-22, see p. 16. Wagner observes that "all educational research in schools involves [communication and] cooperation of one form or another between researchers and practitioners" (p. 13), but he notes that such communication generally gets formalized as "data-extraction agreements" (negotiated so that researchers can do the research they have designed) (p. 15). Regarding "evaluation research," see Cousins and Leithwood (n. 5 above). Regarding "interest-(vs. curiosity-) driven research," see Auriat (n. 25 above), p. 275. Regarding "policy-relevant research," see Peter Coleman and Linda LaRoque, "Linking Educational Research and Educational Policy via Policy-Relevant Research," Alberta Journal of Educational Research 29, no. 3 (1983): 242-55, see p. 243. Regarding "policy research," Reimers and McGinn ([n. 3 above], p. 23) explain that policy research "is designed to anticipate the consequences of action . . . as opposed to research designed to explain why the world is the way it is without describing how it could be made different." Regarding "practice-driven research," see Ludden and Wood, pp. 21-25. Weiss ("The Many Meanings" [n. 4 above], p. 181) concludes that "it is time for social scientists to pay attention to the imperatives of policy-making systems and to consider soberly what they can do, not necessarily to increase the use of research, but to improve the contribution that research makes to the wisdom of social policy." See also Meyer and Baker (n. 5 above); Pettigrew (n. 5 above), pp. 225-26; Psacharopoulos (n. 86 above), p. 380.
152. Regarding "applied research," see Dunn, "Studying Knowledge Use" (n. 1 above), p. 370. Regarding "case study," see Michael Crossley and Robin Burns ("Case Study in Comparative and International Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap," in Comparative and International Studies and the Theory and Practice of Education, Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society, ed. Barry Sheehan (Hamilton, New Zealand: ANZIES, 1983), pp. 1-18, see pp. 1 and 13) describe case study in comparative and international education as a way to address "an apparent polarization between theorists and practitioners," since it provides "a way to interrelate the theory and 'reality' of education . . . [focusing on] the actual day-to-day activities of educational practitioners and their clients . . . can lead to . . . greater cross-fertilization . . . between theory and practice." Regarding "clinical partnerships," see Jon Wagner, "The Unavoidable Intervention of Educational Research: A Framework for Reconsidering Researcher-Practitioner Cooperation," Educational Researcher 26, no. 7 (1997): 13-22, see p. 16. Wagner observes that "all educational research in schools involves [communication and] cooperation of one form or another between researchers and practitioners" (p. 13), but he notes that such communication generally gets formalized as "data-extraction agreements" (negotiated so that researchers can do the research they have designed) (p. 15). Regarding "evaluation research," see Cousins and Leithwood (n. 5 above). Regarding "interest-(vs. curiosity-) driven research," see Auriat (n. 25 above), p. 275. Regarding "policy-relevant research," see Peter Coleman and Linda LaRoque, "Linking Educational Research and Educational Policy via Policy-Relevant Research," Alberta Journal of Educational Research 29, no. 3 (1983): 242-55, see p. 243. Regarding "policy research," Reimers and McGinn ([n. 3 above], p. 23) explain that policy research "is designed to anticipate the consequences of action . . . as opposed to research designed to explain why the world is the way it is without describing how it could be made different." Regarding "practice-driven research," see Ludden and Wood, pp. 21-25. Weiss ("The Many Meanings" [n. 4 above], p. 181) concludes that "it is time for social scientists to pay attention to the imperatives of policy-making systems and to consider soberly what they can do, not necessarily to increase the use of research, but to improve the contribution that research makes to the wisdom of social policy." See also Meyer and Baker (n. 5 above); Pettigrew (n. 5 above), pp. 225-26; Psacharopoulos (n. 86 above), p. 380.
153. William Cooley and William Bickel, Decision-Oriented Educational Research (Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff, 1986).
154. For "on-going educational dialogue," see ibid, p. 27. Note that "conversation" would be the more appropriate term here, given the way we have defined dialogue in this article. For "work hard . . . ," see ibid, p. 36.
155. For "on-going educational dialogue," see ibid, p. 27. Note that "conversation" would be the more appropriate term here, given the way we have defined dialogue in this article. For "work hard . . . ," see ibid, p. 36.
156. Adams, Kee, and Linn (n. 33 above); Klemperer, Theisens, and Kaiser (n. 14 above).
157. Lawrence Stenhouse, Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development (London: Heinemann, 1975). Although Stenhouse and his colleagues at the University of Fast Anglia in England popularized and legitimized collaborative action research in education. Stephen Corey (Action Research to Improve School Practices [New York: Teachers College Press, 1953]) - drawing on ideas of Kurt Lewin ("Action Research and Minority Problems," Journal of Social Issues 2, no. 1 [1946]: 34-46), who coined the term action research - may have been the first to promote this approach in education.
158. Lawrence Stenhouse, Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development (London: Heinemann, 1975). Although Stenhouse and his colleagues at the University of Fast Anglia in England popularized and legitimized collaborative action research in education. Stephen Corey (Action Research to Improve School Practices [New York: Teachers College Press, 1953]) - drawing on ideas of Kurt Lewin ("Action Research and Minority Problems," Journal of Social Issues 2, no. 1 [1946]: 34-46), who coined the term action research - may have been the first to promote this approach in education.
159. Lawrence Stenhouse, Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development (London: Heinemann, 1975). Although Stenhouse and his colleagues at the University of Fast Anglia in England popularized and legitimized collaborative action research in education. Stephen Corey (Action Research to Improve School Practices [New York: Teachers College Press, 1953]) - drawing on ideas of Kurt Lewin ("Action Research and Minority Problems," Journal of Social Issues 2, no. 1 [1946]: 34-46), who coined the term action research - may have been the first to promote this approach in education.
160. See Brause and Mayher, eds. (n. 16 above); Joe Kincheloe, Teachers as Researchers: Qualitative Inquiry as a Path to Empowerment (Bristol: Falmer, 1991).
161. See Brause and Mayher, eds. (n. 16 above); Joe Kincheloe, Teachers as Researchers: Qualitative Inquiry as a Path to Empowerment (Bristol: Falmer, 1991).
162. Cousins and Leithwood, p. 361; Goodman (n. 66 above); Reimers and McGinn, p. 25., Louis ([n. 28 above]. p. 211) provides the important insight that unless one assumes that research generates generalizable conclusions (as is the case in the positivist paradigm), "involving the users in research will not necessarily make the research more useable - except at that particular site."
163. Whyte (n. 23 above).
164. Wagner, "The Unavoidable Intervention," p. 16. It is also synonymous with what Joyce Epstein ([n. 24 above], p. 16) identifies as the "highest level of involvement" that educational theorists/researchers (viz., sociologists of education) can have in educational reform efforts.
165. Reimers and McGinn, p. 38.
166. Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (New York : Doubleday, 1990).
167. Y. Michael Bodemann, "The Problem of Sociological Praxis," Theory and Society 5 (1978): 387-420; G. Vio Brossi and R. de Wit, eds., Investigación participativa y praxis rural (Lima: Mosca Azul, 1981); Orlando Fals Borda, "Por la praxis: El problema de cómo investigar la realidad para transformarla," in Crítica y política en ciencias sociales: El debate sobre teoría y práctica, tomo 1 (Bogotá: Simposio Mundial de Cartagena/Punta de Lanza, 1978), pp. 209-49; Patti Lather, "Research as Praxis," in Patti Lather, Getting Smart: Feminist Research and Pedagogy with/in the Postmodern (New York: Routledge, 1991), pp. 50-89; Heinz Moser, "La investigación-acción como nuevo paradigma en las ciencias sociales," in Crítica y política en ciencias sociales, tomo 1, pp. 117-40.
168. Y. Michael Bodemann, "The Problem of Sociological Praxis," Theory and Society 5 (1978): 387-420; G. Vio Brossi and R. de Wit, eds., Investigación participativa y praxis rural (Lima: Mosca Azul, 1981); Orlando Fals Borda, "Por la praxis: El problema de cómo investigar la realidad para transformarla," in Crítica y política en ciencias sociales: El debate sobre teoría y práctica, tomo 1 (Bogotá: Simposio Mundial de Cartagena/Punta de Lanza, 1978), pp. 209-49; Patti Lather, "Research as Praxis," in Patti Lather, Getting Smart: Feminist Research and Pedagogy with/in the Postmodern (New York: Routledge, 1991), pp. 50-89; Heinz Moser, "La investigación-acción como nuevo paradigma en las ciencias sociales," in Crítica y política en ciencias sociales, tomo 1, pp. 117-40.
169. Y. Michael Bodemann, "The Problem of Sociological Praxis," Theory and Society 5 (1978): 387-420; G. Vio Brossi and R. de Wit, eds., Investigación participativa y praxis rural (Lima: Mosca Azul, 1981); Orlando Fals Borda, "Por la praxis: El problema de cómo investigar la realidad para transformarla," in Crítica y política en ciencias sociales: El debate sobre teoría y práctica, tomo 1 (Bogotá: Simposio Mundial de Cartagena/Punta de Lanza, 1978), pp. 209-49; Patti Lather, "Research as Praxis," in Patti Lather, Getting Smart: Feminist Research and Pedagogy with/in the Postmodern (New York: Routledge, 1991), pp. 50-89; Heinz Moser, "La investigación-acción como nuevo paradigma en las ciencias sociales," in Crítica y política en ciencias sociales, tomo 1, pp. 117-40.
170. Y. Michael Bodemann, "The Problem of Sociological Praxis," Theory and Society 5 (1978): 387-420; G. Vio Brossi and R. de Wit, eds., Investigación participativa y praxis rural (Lima: Mosca Azul, 1981); Orlando Fals Borda, "Por la praxis: El problema de cómo investigar la realidad para transformarla," in Crítica y política en ciencias sociales: El debate sobre teoría y práctica, tomo 1 (Bogotá: Simposio Mundial de Cartagena/Punta de Lanza, 1978), pp. 209-49; Patti Lather, "Research as Praxis," in Patti Lather, Getting Smart: Feminist Research and Pedagogy with/in the Postmodern (New York: Routledge, 1991), pp. 50-89; Heinz Moser, "La investigación-acción como nuevo paradigma en las ciencias sociales," in Crítica y política en ciencias sociales, tomo 1, pp. 117-40.
171. Y. Michael Bodemann, "The Problem of Sociological Praxis," Theory and Society 5 (1978): 387-420; G. Vio Brossi and R. de Wit, eds., Investigación participativa y praxis rural (Lima: Mosca Azul, 1981); Orlando Fals Borda, "Por la praxis: El problema de cómo investigar la realidad para transformarla," in Crítica y política en ciencias sociales: El debate sobre teoría y práctica, tomo 1
172. Wilfred Carr and Stephen Kemmis, Becoming critical: Education, Knowledge and Action Research (London: Falmer, 1986); Michelle Fine, "The Politics of Research and Activism," Gender and Society 3, no. 4 (1989): 549-58; Gitlin et al. (n. 23 above); James Ludwig and Jennifer Gore, "Extending Power and Specifying Method within the Discourse of Activist Research," in Power and Method: Political Activism and Educational Research, ed. Andrew Gitlin (New York: Routledge, 1994), pp. 227-38; Robin McTaggart, "Principles for Participatory Action Research," Adult Education Quarterly 41, no. 3 (1991): 259-78.
173. Wilfred Carr and Stephen Kemmis, Becoming critical: Education, Knowledge and Action Research (London: Falmer, 1986); Michelle Fine, "The Politics of Research and Activism," Gender and Society 3, no. 4 (1989): 549-58; Gitlin et al. (n. 23 above); James Ludwig and Jennifer Gore, "Extending Power and Specifying Method within the Discourse of Activist Research," in Power and Method: Political Activism and Educational Research, ed. Andrew Gitlin (New York: Routledge, 1994), pp. 227-38; Robin McTaggart, "Principles for Participatory Action Research," Adult Education Quarterly 41, no. 3 (1991): 259-78.
174. Wilfred Carr and Stephen Kemmis, Becoming critical: Education, Knowledge and Action Research (London: Falmer, 1986); Michelle Fine, "The Politics of Research and Activism," Gender and Society 3, no. 4 (1989): 549-58; Gitlin et al. (n. 23 above); James Ludwig and Jennifer Gore, "Extending Power and Specifying Method within the Discourse of Activist Research," in Power and Method: Political Activism and Educational Research, ed. Andrew Gitlin (New York: Routledge, 1994), pp. 227-38; Robin McTaggart, "Principles for Participatory Action Research," Adult Education Quarterly 41, no. 3 (1991): 259-78.
175. Wilfred Carr and Stephen Kemmis, Becoming critical: Education, Knowledge and Action Research (London: Falmer, 1986); Michelle Fine, "The Politics of Research and Activism," Gender and Society 3, no. 4 (1989): 549-58; Gitlin et al. (n. 23 above); James Ludwig and Jennifer Gore, "Extending Power and Specifying Method within the Discourse of Activist Research," in Power and Method: Political Activism and Educational Research, ed. Andrew Gitlin (New York: Routledge, 1994), pp. 227-38; Robin McTaggart, "Principles for Participatory Action Research," Adult Education Quarterly 41, no. 3 (1991): 259-78.
176. Lather, p. 56.
177. McTaggart, p. 176. Reimers and McGinn ([n. 3 above], p. 110) make an important point that a "major difficulty with participatory approaches in education policy dialogue is that many organizational and political cultures are not supportive of participation and democracy. Public administration in some countries is highly hierarchical and participatory approaches represent a major cultural change."
178. See also Shulamit Reinharz, "Dimensions of Experiential Method," in On Becoming a Social Scientist (Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1984), pp. 308-68.
179. Curasco, Clair, and Kaynike (n. 58 above).
180. Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (n. 72 above), pp. 77-83.
181. Paulo Freire's words in Ira Shor and Paulo Freire, A Pedagogy for Liberation: Dialogues on Transforming Education (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergen & Garvey, 1987), p. 98.
182. Peter Berger, "'Consciousness Raising' and the Vicissitudes of Policy," in Pyramids of Sacrifice: Political Ethics and Social Change (New York: Basic, 1974), pp. 111-32; Jim Walker, "The End of Dialogue: Paulo Freire on Politics and Education," in Literacy and Revolution: The Pedagogy of Paulo Freire, ed. Robert Mackie (New York: Continuum, 1981), pp. 120-50.
183. Peter Berger, "'Consciousness Raising' and the Vicissitudes of Policy," in Pyramids of Sacrifice: Political Ethics and Social Change (New York: Basic, 1974), pp. 111-32; Jim Walker, "The End of Dialogue: Paulo Freire on Politics and Education," in Literacy and Revolution: The Pedagogy of Paulo Freire, ed. Robert Mackie (New York: Continuum, 1981), pp. 120-50.
184. Joel Samoff, "Institutionalizing International Influence," in Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and the Local, ed. Robert Arnove and Carlos Alberto Torres (Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), pp. 51-89.
185. Puchner (n. 68 above).
186. For a related discussion about the challenges for and the possibility of "authentic communication" between international consultants and "indigenous" groups, see Christine Fox, "Listening to the Other: Mapping Intercultural Communication in Postcolonial Educational Consultancies," in Social Cartography: Mapping Ways of Seeing Social and Educational Change, ed. Rolland Paulston (New York: Garland, 1996), pp. 291-306.
187. Shor and Freire, p. 101.
188. Seth Kreisberg, Transforming Power: Domination, Empowerment, and Education (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992).
189. See also Kathryn Anderson-Levitt and Ntal-I'Mbirwa Alimasi, "Are Pedagogical Ideals Embraced or Imposed? The Case of Reading Instruction in the Republic of Guinea," in Levinson and Sutton, eds. (n. 13 above), pp. 225-42.
190. Relevant here is the claim by Martin Carnoy and Joel Samoff (Education and Social Transition in the Third World [Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992]) that often research judged to be relevant to educational policy making treats existing political and economic structures as a given rather than problematizing them.
191. On the related issue of "duality of structure," see Anthony Giddens, Central Problems of Social Theory: Action, Structure and Contradictions in Social Theory (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979).
192. This provides insights regarding the conclusion by Kennedy ([n. 16 above], pp. 9-10) that "the connection between research and practice is not one in which research influences practice . . . nor one in which practice influences research . . . but rather one in which both research and practice are influenced by, and perhaps are even victims of, the same shifting social and political context." This conception is partly related to the model for linking research and policy that Weiss ("The Many Meanings" [n. 4 above], pp. 174-80) labels as "Research as Part of the Intellectual Enterprise of Society," where research and policy are both influenced by "the larger fashions of social thought."
193. Dieter Misgeld, "Emancipation, Enlightenment, and Liberation: An Approach toward Foundational Inquiry into Education," Interchange 6, no. 1 (1975): 27-44, quote on 35. We first came across this quote in Raymond Morrow and Carlos Alberto Torres, Social Theory and Education (n. 48 above), p. 241.
194. Dieter Misgeld, "Emancipation, Enlightenment, and Liberation: An Approach toward Foundational Inquiry into Education," Interchange 6, no. 1 (1975): 27-44, quote on 35. We first came across this quote in Raymond Morrow and Carlos Alberto Torres, Social Theory and Education (n. 48 above), p. 241.
195. Jürgen Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1979), The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984), and The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 2, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity, 1987). The quotation is from Thomas McCarthy, "Translator's Introduction," in Jürgen Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (London: Heinneman, 1976), p. xvii. Morrow and Torres explain that the notion of participatory action research as well as Freire's vision of liberatory pedagogy have been influenced by Habermas's writings; for instance, Habermas's concern about constraints on the "ideal speech situation" informs understandings of the value of and the challenges to dialogue in both participatory action research and liberatory pedagogy.
196. Jürgen Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1979), The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984), and The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 2, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity, 1987). The quotation is from Thomas McCarthy, "Translator's Introduction," in Jürgen Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (London: Heinneman, 1976), p. xvii. Morrow and Torres explain that the notion of participatory action research as well as Freire's vision of liberatory pedagogy have been influenced by Habermas's writings; for instance, Habermas's concern about constraints on the "ideal speech situation" informs understandings of the value of and the challenges to dialogue in both participatory action research and liberatory pedagogy.
197. Jürgen Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1979), The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984), and The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 2, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity, 1987). The quotation is from Thomas McCarthy, "Translator's Introduction," in Jürgen Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (London: Heinneman, 1976), p. xvii. Morrow and Torres explain that the notion of participatory action research as well as Freire's vision of liberatory pedagogy have been influenced by Habermas's writings; for instance, Habermas's concern about constraints on the "ideal speech situation" informs understandings of the value of and the challenges to dialogue in both participatory action research and liberatory pedagogy.
198. Jürgen Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1979), The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984), and The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 2, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity, 1987). The quotation is from Thomas McCarthy, "Translator's Introduction," in Jürgen Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (London: Heinneman, 1976), p. xvii. Morrow and Torres explain that the notion of participatory action research as well as Freire's vision of liberatory pedagogy have been influenced by Habermas's writings; for instance, Habermas's concern about constraints on the "ideal speech situation" informs understandings of the value of and the challenges to dialogue in both participatory action research and liberatory pedagogy.