Biological evolution and statistical physics

Advances in Physics

Volumn 50, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 209-295

  Drossel, Barbara ^a  

^a TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGY; GAME THEORY; MATHEMATICAL MODELS; RANDOM PROCESSES; THEOREM PROVING;

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTIONS;

STATISTICAL MECHANICS;

EID: 0035296743     PISSN: 00018732     EISSN: 14606976     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00018730110041365     Document Type: Article

References (250)

1. Darwin, C., 1859, The Origin of Species (London: John Murray).
2. Higgs, P., 1995, Phys. Rev. E, 51, 95.
3. Wilke, C. O., Ronnewinkel, C., and Martinetz, T., 1999, (physics/9912012), to appear in Physics Reports.
4. Shapiro, J. A., 2000, Genetica, to appear.
5. Caporale, L. H. (ed.), 1999, Molecular Strategies in Biological Evolution, Conference Proceedings, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 870 (New York: New York Academy of Sciences).
6. Crow, J., and Kimura, M., 1970, An Introduction to Population Genetics Theory (New York: Harper & Row).
7. Baake, E., and Gabriel, W., 2000, Ann. Rev. Comp. Phys., 7, 203 (cond-mat/9907372).
8. Peliti, L., 1997, (cond-mat/9712027); 1995, (cond-mat/9505003).
9. Fisher, R. A., 1958, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, 2nd edn (New York: Dover Publications, Inc.) (the first edition is from 1930).
10. Kauffman, S. A., and Levin, S., 1987, J. theor. Biol., 128, 11.
11. Kauffman, S. A., 1993, The Origins of Order (New York: Oxford University Press).
12. Gillespie, J., 1984, Evolution, 38, 1116.
13. Derrida, B., 1981, Phys. Rev. B, 24, 2613.
14. Weinberger, E. D., 1991, Phys. Rev. A, 44, 6399.
15. Flyvbjerg, H., and Lautrup, B., 1992, Phys. Rev. A, 46, 6714.
16. Wilke, C. O., and Martinetz, T., 1999, Phys. Rev. E, 60, 2154.
17. Papadopoulos, D., Schneider, D., Meier-Eiss, J., Arber, W., Lenski, R. E., and Blot, M., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 3807.
18. Eigen, M., 1971, Naturwissenschaften, 58, 465.
19. Spiegelman, S., 1971, Q. Rev. Biol., 4, 213.
20. Higgs, P. G., 1994, Genet. Res. Camb., 63, 63.
21. Wiehe, T., Baake, E., and Schuster, P., 1995, J. theor. Biol., 177, 1.
22. Eigen, M., McCaskill, J., and Schuster, P., 1989, Adv. Chem. Phys., 75, 149; an abridged version is 1988, J. chem. Phys., 92, 6881.
23. Baake, E., Baake, M., and Wagner, H., 1997, Phys. Rev. Lett., 78, 559.
24. Wagner, H., Baake, E., and Gerisch, T., 1998, J. stat. Phys., 92, 1017.
25. Woodcock, G., and Higgs, P. G., 1996, J. theor. Biol., 179, 61.
26. Wiehe, T., 1997, Genet. Res. Camb., 69, 127.
27. Schuster, P., and Swetina, J., 1988, Bull. Math. Biol., 50, 635.
28. Galluccio, S., Graber, R., Zhang, Y.-C., 1996, J. Phys. A: Math. Gen., 29, L249.
29. Galluccio, S., 1997, Phys. Rev. E, 56, 4526.
30. Franz, S., Peliti, L., and Sellitto, M., 1993, J. Phys. A: Math. Gen., 26, L1195.
31. Leuthaeusser, I., 1986, J. chem. Phys., 84, 1884; 1987, J. stat. Phys., 48, 343.
32. Tarazona, P., 1992, Phys. Rev. A, 45, 6038.
33. Drake, J. W., Charlesworth, B., Charlesworth, D., and Crow, J. F., 1998, Genetics, 148, 1667.
34. Derrida, B., and Peliti, L., 1991, Bull. Math. Biol., 53, 355.
35. Higgs, P. G., and Derrida, B., 1992, J. molec. Evol., 35, 454.
36. Derrida, B., Manrubia, S., and Zanette, D., 1999, Phys. Rev. Lett., 82, 1987.
37. Coppersmith, S. N., Blank, R. D., and Kadanoff, L. P., 1999, J. stat. Phys., 97, 429.
38. Muller, H. J., 1964, Mutat. Res., 1, 2.
39. Felsenstein, J., 1974, Genetics, 78, 737.
40. Higgs, P. G., and Woodcock, G., 1995, J. math. Biol., 33, 677.
41. Wagner, G. P., and Gabriel, W., 1990, Evolution, 44, 715.
42. Gordo, I., and Charlesworth, B., 2000, Genetics, 154, 1379.
43. Alle e, W. C., 1938, The Social Life of Animals (New York: Henry Schuman).
44. Nowak, M., and Schuster, P., 1989, J. theor. Biol., 137, 375.
45. Alves, D., and Fontanari, J. F., 1998, Phys. Rev. E, 57, 7008.
46. Bonhoeffer, S., and Stadler, P. F., 1993, J. theor. Biol., 164, 359.
47. Peliti, L., 1998, Europhys. Lett., 44, 546.
48. Zhang, Y.-C., 1997, Phys. Rev. E, 55, R3817.
49. Van Nimwegen, E., and Crutchfield, J. P., 2000, Bull. Math. Biol., 62, 799.
50. Fontana, W., Stadler, P. F., Bornbergbauer, E. G., Griesmacher, T., Hofacker, I. L., Tacker, M., Tarazona, P., Weinberger, E. D., Schuster, P., 1993, Phys. Rev. E, 47, 2083.
51. Schuster, P., Fontana, W., Stadler, P. F., and Hofacker, I. L., 1994, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 255, 279.
52. Huynen, M. A., Stadler, P. F., and Fontana, W., 1996, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93, 397.
53. Fontana, W., and Schuster, P., 1998, J. theor. Biol., 194, 491.
54. Bastolla, U., Roman, H. E., and Vendruscolo, M., 1999, J. theor. Biol., 200, 49.
55. Gavrilets, S., and Gravner, J., 1996, J. theor. Biol., 184, 51.
56. Van Nimwegen, E., Crutchfield, J., and Huynen, M., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 9716.
57. Taylor, C. F., and Higgs, P. G., 2000, J. theor. Biol., 203, 419.
58. Kimura, M., 1968, Nature, 217, 624.
59. Kimura, M., 1983, The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
60. Gillespie, J. H., 1991, The Causes of Molecular Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press).
61. Demetrius, L., 1997, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94, 3491.
62. Williams, G. C., 1975, Sex and Evolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
63. Bell, G., 1982, The Masterpiece of Nature: The Evolution and Genetics of Sexuality (Berkeley: University of California Press).
64. Hamilton, W. D., Axelrod, R., and Tanese, R., 1990, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87, 3566.
65. Potts, W. K., Manning, C. J., and Wakeland, E. K., 1991, Nature, 352, 619.
66. Stauffer, D., de Oliveira, P. M. C., de Oliveira, S. M., and Zornenon dos Santos, R. M., 1996, Physica A, 231, 504.
67. Bernardes, A. T., 1997, J. stat. Phys., 86, 431.
68. Pekalski, A., 2000, Eur. Phys. J. B, 13, 791.
69. Sa Martins, J. S., 2000, Phys. Rev. E, 61, R2212.
70. Barton, N. H., and Charlesworth, B., 1998, Science, 281, 1986.
71. Christiansen, F. B., Otto, S. P., Bergman, A., and Feldman, M. N., 1998, Theor. pop. Biol., 53, 199.
72. Higgs, P., 1997, Genetica, 102/ 103, 91.
73. Mitchell, M., 1996, An Introduction to Genetic Algorithms (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press).
74. Goldberg, D. E., 1989, Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley).
75. Van Nimwegen, E., Crutchfield, J. P., and Mitchell, M., 1999, Theor. comput. Sci., 229, 41.
76. PruÈ gel-Bennett, A., and Shapiro, J. L., 1994, Phys. Rev. Lett., 72, 1305.
77. Ninio, J., 1991, Genetics, 129, 957.
78. Taddei, F., Radman, M., Maynard-Smith, J., Toupance, B., Gouyon, P. H., and Godelle, B., 1997, Nature, 387, 700.
79. Kessler, D. A., and Levine, H., 1998, Phys. Rev. Lett., 80, 2012.
80. Bridges, B. A., 1998, Mutat. Res., 408, 1.
81. Feldman, M. W., Otto, S. P., and Christiansen, F. B., 1997, Annu. Rev. Genet., 30, 261.
82. Futuyma, D. J., and Slatkin, M. (eds), 1983, Coevolution (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.).
83. Gavrilets, S., 1997, J. theor. Biol., 186, 527.
84. Frank, S. A., 1997, Am. Nat., 150, S80.
85. Drossel, B., and McKane, A., 1999, J. theor. Biol., 196, 363.
86. Kiester, A. R., Lande, R., and Schemske, D. W., 1984, Am. Nat., 124, 220.
87. von Neumann, J., and Morgenstern, I., 1944, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
88. Maynard Smith, J., and Price, G. R., 1973, Nature, 246, 15.
89. Maynard Smith, J., 1982, Evolution and the Theory of Games (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
90. Riechert, S. E., and Hammerstein, P., 1983, Ann. Rev. ecol. Syst., 14, 377.
91. Weibull, J. W., 1995, Evolutionary Game Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
92. Krebs, J. R., and Davies, N. B. (eds), 1997, Behavioural Ecology. An Evolutionary Approach, 4th edn (Cambridge: Blackwell Science).
93. Maynard Smith, J., 1981, Am. Nat., 117, 1015.
94. Garay, J., and Varga, Z., 1998, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 265, 1007.
95. Hines, W. G. S., and Turelli, M., 1997, J. theor. Biol., 187, 379.
96. Hines, W. G. S., 1998, J. theor. Biol., 191, 181.
97. Taylor, P. D., and Jonker, L. B., 1978, Math. Biosci., 40, 145.
98. Harley, B., 1981, J. theor. Biol., 89, 611.
99. Milinski, M., 1979, Z. Tierpsychol., 51, 36.
100. Turner, P. E., and Chao, L., 1999, Nature, 398, 441.
101. Bishop, D. T., and Cannings, C., 1978, J. theor. Biol., 70, 85.
102. Huang, A. S., and Baltimore, D., 1970, Nature, 226, 325.
103. Velicer, G. J., Kroos, L., and Lenski, R. E., 2000, Nature, 404, 598.
104. Hamilton, W. D., 1979, Sexual Selection and Reproductive Competition, edited by M. S. Blum and N. A. Blum (London: Academic Press).
105. Cook, J. M., Compton, S. G., Herre, E. A., and West, S. A., 1997, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 264, 747.
106. Sinervo, B., and Lively, C. M., 1996, Nature, 380, 240.
107. Maynard Smith, J., 1974, J. theor. Biol., 47, 209.
108. Maynard Smith, J., and Parker, G.A., 1976, Anim. Behav., 24, 159.
109. Hammerstein, P., 1981, Anim. Behav., 29, 193.
110. Burgess, J. W., 1976, Sci. Am., 234, 100.
111. Killingback, T., and Doebeli, M., 1996, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 263, 1135.
112. Nowak, M. A., and May, R. M., 1992, Nature, 359, 826.
113. Cressman, R., and Vickers, G. T., 1997, J. theor. Biol., 184, 359.
114. Dugatkin, L. A., 1997, Cooperation Among Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
115. Hamilton, W. D., 1964, J. theor. Biol., 7, 1.
116. Maynard Smith, J., and Szathmary, E., 1995, The Major Transitions in Evolution (Oxford: W. H. Freeman).
117. Axelrod, R., and Hamilton, W. D., 1981, Science, 211, 1390.
118. Axelrod, R., 1984, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books).
119. Boyd, R., and Lorberbaum, J. P., 1987, Nature, 327, 58.
120. Bendor, J., and Swistak, P., 1995, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 992, 3596.
121. Nowak, M. A., and Sigmund, K., 1992, Nature, 355, 250.
122. Nowak, M. A., and Sigmund, K., 1993, Nature, 364, 560.
123. Nowak, M. A., and Sigmund, K., 1998, Nature, 393, 573.
124. Lotem, A., Fishman, M. A., and Stone, L., 1999, Nature, 400, 226.
125. Fisher, E. A., 1980, Anim. Behav., 28, 620.
126. Milinksy, M., 1987, Nature, 325, 433.
127. Fishman, M. A., 1999, J. theor. Biol., 196, 225.
128. Lombardo, M. P., 1985, Science, 227, 1363.
129. Wilkinson, G. S., 1984, Nature, 308, 181.
130. Wade, M. J., 1978, Quart. Rev. Biol., 53, 101.
131. Wilson, D. S., 1983, Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 14, 159.
132. Donato, R., 1996, J. Phys. I France, 6, 445.
133. Donato, R., Peliti, L., and Serva, M., 1997, Theor. Biosci., 116, 309.
134. Silva, A. T. C., and Fontanari, J. F., 1999, Eur. Phys. J. B, 7, 385.
135. Silva, A.T.C., and Fontanari, J. F., 1999, Physica A, 268, 257.
136. Szathma ry, E., 1987, J. theor. Biol., 128, 463.
137. Eshel, I., 1972, Theor. popul. Biol., 3, 258.
138. Wilson, D. S., and Dugatkin, L. A., 1997, Am. Nat., 149, 336.
139. Parker, G. A., Baker, R. R., and Smith, V. G. F., 1972, J. theor. Biol., 36, 529.
140. Parker, G. A., and Partridge, L., 1998, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 353, 261.
141. Gavrilets, S., 2000, Nature, 403, 886.
142. Carvalhoa, A. B., Sampaioa, M. C., Varandasa, F. R., and Klaczko, L. B., 1998, Genetics, 148, 719.
143. Hardy, I. C. W., 1997, Appl. anim. Behav. Sci., 51, 217.
144. Hamilton, W. D., 1967, Science, 156, 477.
145. Trivers, R. L., and Hare, H., 1976, Science, 191, 249.
146. Andersson, M., 1994, Sexual Selection (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
147. Kirkpatrick, M., 1982, Evolution, 36, 1.
148. Lande, R., 1981, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 78, 3721.
149. Bulmer, M. G., 1980, The Mathematical Theory of Quantitative Genetics (Oxford: Clarendon Press).
150. Seger, J., 1985, Evolution, 39, 1185.
151. Iwasa, Y., and Pomiankowski, A., 1995, Nature, 377, 420.
152. Mayr, E., 1942, Systematic and the Origin of Species (New York: Columbia University Press).
153. Templeton, A. R., 1989, Speciation and Its Consequences, edited by D. Otte and J. A. Endler (Sutherland, MA: Sinauer Associates).
154. Wright, S., 1982, Ann. Rev. Gen., 16, 1.
155. Serva, M., and Peliti, L., 1991, J. Phys. A: Math. Gen., 24, L985.
156. Manzo, F., and Peliti, L., 1994, J. Phys. A: Math. Gen., 27, 7079.
157. Gavrilets, S., 1999, Am. Nat., 154, 1.
158. Moller, A. P., and Cuervo, J. J., 1998, Evolution, 52, 859.
159. Lande, R., 1982, Evolution, 36, 213.
160. Lande, R., and Kirkpatrick, M., 1988, J. theor. Biol., 133, 85.
161. Seehausen, O., Van Alphen, J. M., and Witte, F., 1999, Belg. J. Zool., 129, 43.
162. Higashi, M., Takimoto, G., and Yamamura, N., 1999, Nature, 402, 523.
163. Maynard Smith, J., 1966, Am. Nat., 100, 637.
164. Drossel, B., and McKane, A., 2000, J. theor. Biol., 204, 467.
165. Rosenzweig, M. L., 1978, Biol. J. Linn. Soc. Lond., 10, 275.
166. Rosenzweig, M. L., 1995, Species Diversity in Space and Time (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
167. Kondrashov, A. S., and Kondrashov, F. A., 1999, Nature, 400, 351.
168. Dieckmann, U., and Doebeli, M., 1999, Nature, 400, 354.
169. Clayton, D. H., and Moore, J. (eds), 1997, Host-parasite Evolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
170. Fenner, F., and Kerr, P. J., 1994, The Evolutionary Biology of Viruses, edited by S. S. Morse (New York: Raven Press Ltd).
171. Lenski, R. E., and May, R. M., 1994, J. theor. Biol., 169, 253.
172. Bull, J. J., 1994, Evolution, 48, 1423.
173. Garnett, G. P., and Antia, R., 1994, The Evolutionary Biology of Viruses, edited by S. S. Morse (New York: Raven Press Ltd).
174. Nowak, M. A., and May, R. M., 1994, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 255, 81; 1994, J. theor. Biol., 170, 95.
175. Nowak, M. A., and May, R. M., 1995, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 261, 209.
176. Frank, S. A., 1996, Quart. Rev. Biol., 71, 37.
177. Bull, J. J., Molineux, I. J., and Rice, W. R., 1991, Evolution, 45, 875.
178. van Baalen, M., 1998, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 265, 317.
179. Seger, J., 1988, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 319, 541.
180. May, R. M., and Anderson, R. M., 1983, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 219, 281.
181. Dybdahl, M. F., and Lively, C. M., 1998, Evolution, 52, 1057.
182. Coltman, D. W., Pilkington, J. G., Smith, J. A., and Pemberton, J. M., 1999, Evolution, 53, 1259.
183. Penn, D. J., and Potts, W. K., 1999, Am. Nat., 153, 145.
184. Savill, N. J., Rohani, P., and Hogeweg, P., 1997, J. theor. Biol., 188, 11.
185. Raup, D. M., 1986, Science, 231, 1528.
186. Jablonski, D., 1994, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 344, 11.
187. Alvarez, W., Alvarez, L. W., Asaro, F., and Michel, H. V., 1984, Science, 223, 1183.
188. Raup, D. M., and Sepkoski, J. J., 1984, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 81, 801.
189. Benton, M. J., 1995, Science, 268, 52.
190. Marshall, C. R., 1998, Nature, 392, 17.
191. Sole, R. V., and Bascompte, J., 1996, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 263, 161.
192. Newman, M. E. J., 1996, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 263, 1605.
193. Raup, D. M., 1991, Paleobiology, 17, 37.
194. Foote, M., 1996, Paleobiology, 20, 424.
195. Sepkoski, J. J., 1998, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 353, 315.
196. Van Valen, L., 1973, Evol. Theory 1, 1.
197. Newman, M. E. J., and Sibani, P., 1999, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 266, 1593.
198. Sole, R. V., Manrubia, S. C., Benton, M., and Bak, P., 1997, Nature, 388, 764.
199. Sole, R. V., Manrubia, S. C., Perez-Mercader, J., Benton, M., and Bak, P., 1998, Adv. Complex Systems, 1, 255.
200. Kirchner, J. W., and Weil, A., 1998, Nature, 395, 337.
201. Newman, M. E. J., and Eble, G. J., 1999, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 266, 1267.
202. Willis, J. C., 1922, Age and Area (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
203. Burlando, B., 1990, J. theor. Biol., 146, 99.
204. Burlando, B., 1990, J. theor. Biol., 163, 161.
205. Gould, S. J., and Eldredge, N., 1977, Paleobiology, 3, 114.
206. Gould, S. J., and Eldredge, N., 1993, Nature, 366, 223.
207. Jablonski, D., 1999, Science, 284, 2114.
208. Raup, D. M., and Sepkoski, J. J., 1982, Science, 216, 1501.
209. Bak, P., Tang, C., and Wiesenfeld, K., 1987, Phys. Rev. Lett., 59, 381; 1988, Phys. Rev. A, 38, 364.
210. Jaeger, H. M., Liu, C., and Nagel, S. R., 1989, Phys. Rev. Lett., 62, 40.
211. Turcotte, D. L., 1999, Rep. Prog. Phys., 62, 1377.
212. Bak, P., and Sneppen, K., 1993, Phys. Rev. Lett., 71, 4083.
213. Kauffman, S., and Johnsen, S., 1991, J. theor. Biol., 149, 467.
214. Bak, P., Flyvbjerg, H., and Lautrup, B., 1992, Phys. Rev. A, 46, 6724.
215. Paczuski, M., Maslov, S., and Bak, P., 1996, Phys. Rev. E, 53, 414.
216. Paczuski, M., Maslov, S., and Bak, P., 1994, Europhys. Lett. 27, 97.
217. Newman, M. E. J., and Palmer, R. G., 1999, (adap-org/9908002).
218. de Boer, J., Derrida, B., Flyvbjerg, H., Jackson, A. D., and Wettig, T., 1994, Phys. Rev. Lett., 73, 906.
219. Flyvbjerg, H., Sneppen, K., and Bak, P., 1993, Phys. Rev. Lett., 71, 4087.
220. Manrubia, S. C., and Paczuski, M., 1998, Int. J. mod. Phys. C, Phys. Comput., 9, 1025.
221. Sole, R. V., and Manrubia, S. C., 1996, Phys. Rev. E, 54, R42.
222. Sole, R. V., Bascompte, J., and Manrubia, S. C., 1996, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 163, 1407.
223. Sole, R. V., and Manrubia, S. C., 1997, Phys. Rev. E, 55, 4500.
224. Manrubia, S., 2000, private communication.
225. Newman, M. E. J., 1997, J. theor. Biol., 189, 235.
226. Wilke, C., and Martinetz, T., 1997, Phys. Rev. E, 56, 7128.
227. Amaral, L. A. N., and Meyer, M., 1999, Phys. Rev. Lett., 82, 652.
228. Drossel, B., 1998, Phys. Rev. Lett., 81, 5011.
229. Slanina, F., and Kotrla, M., 1999, Phys. Rev. Lett., 83, 5587.
230. Slanina, F., and Kotrla, M., 2000, Phys. Rev. E, 62, 6170.
231. Fernandez, J., Plastino, A., and Diambra, L., 1995, Phys. Rev. E, 52, 5700.
232. Caldarelli, G., Higgs, P. G., and McKane, A. J., 1998, J. theor. Biol., 193, 345.
233. Drossel, B., Higgs, P. G., and McKane, A. J., 2001, J. theor. Biol., 208, 91.
234. Sibani, P., Schmidt, M. R., and Alstrom, P., 1995, Phys. Rev. Lett., 75, 2055.
235. Drossel, B., 1999, Phys. Rev. Lett., 82, 5144.
236. Furusawa, C., and Kaneko, K., 2000, Phys. Rev. Lett., 84, 6130.
237. Sole, R. V., Alonso, D., and McKane, A., 2000, Physica A, 286, 337; Phys. Rev. E, 62, 8466.
238. Bastolla, U., Laessig, M., Manrubia, S. C., and Valleriani, A., 2000, (nlin.A0/ 0009025).
239. Spetner, L., 1970, Nature, 226, 948.
240. Spetner, L., 1997, Not by Chance (New York: The Judaic Press, Inc.).
241. SchuÈ tzenberger, M., 1967, The Mathematical Challenges to the Neo-Darwinian Interpretation of Evolution, edited by P. S. Moorehead and M. M. Kaplan (Philadelphia: Winstar Institute of Anatomy and Biology).
242. Schuetzenberger, M., 1996, La Recherche, January; also available at http://www.larecherche.fr/arch/96/01.
243. Stewart, C.-B., Schilling, J. W., and Wilson, A. C., 1987, Nature, 330, 401.
244. Gould, S. J., and Lloyd, E. A., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 11904.
245. Hanski, I., 1998, Nature, 396, 41.
246. West-Eberhard, M. J., 1989, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 20, 249.
247. Wilson, A. C., Maxson, L. R., and Sarich, V. M., 1974, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 71, 2843.
248. Behe, M. J., 1996, Darwin’s Black Box (New York: Simon & Schuster).
249. True, H. L., and Lindquist, S. L., 2000, Nature, 407, 477.
250. Sepkoski, J. J., Jr, 1992, A compendium of fossil marine animal families. Milwaukee Public Mus. Contrib. Biol. Gieol., 83.