Manipulation of TGF-β to control autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases

Microbes and Infection

Volumn 1, Issue 15, 1999, Pages 1367-1380

  Chen, Wanjun ^a   Wahl, Sharon M ^a  

^a Oral Infect Immun Br Natl I   (United States)

Author keywords

Autoimmune disease; Cytokine; Gene therapy; Inflammation; Oral tolerance; T lymphocyte; TGF

Indexed keywords

CYCLOSPORIN; RETINOIC ACID; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA;

ALLERGIC ENCEPHALITIS; ANIMAL MODEL; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ARTHRITIS; ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; DRUG EFFECT; GENE TARGETING; GENE THERAPY; IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE; IMMUNOREGULATION; IMMUNOTHERAPY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 0033392075     PISSN: 12864579     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1286-4579(99)00249-X     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Roberts A.B., Sporn M.B. Physiological actions and clinical applications of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). Growth Factors. 8:1993;1-9.
2. Roberts A.B., Anzano M.A., Wakefield L.M., Roche N.S., Stern D.F., Sporn M.B. Type beta transforming growth factor a bifunctional regulator of cellular growth. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 82:1985;119-123.
3. Wahl S.M. Transforming growth factor The good the bad and the ugly. J. Exp. M. 180:1994;1587-1590.
4. Mc Cartney-Francis N.L., Frazier-Jessen M., Wahl S.M. TGF-β A balancing act. Int. Rev. Immunol. 16:1998;553-580.
5. Letterio J.J., Roberts A.B. Regulation of immune responses by TGF-β Annu. Rev. Immunol. 16:1998;137-161.
6. Streilein J.W., Takuchi M., Taylor A.W. Immune privilege T cell tolerance and tissue-restricted autoimmunity. Hum Immunol. 52:1997;138-143.
7. Strober W., Kesall B., Fuss I., Marth T., Ludviksson B., Ehrhardt R., Neurath M. Reciprocal IFN-γ and TGF-β response regulate the occurrence of mucosal inflammation. Immunol. Today. 18:1997;61-64.
8. Massague J. TGF-β signaling receptors transducers and Mad proteins. Cell. 85:1996;947-950.
9. Massague J. TGF-β signal transduction. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 67:1998;753-791.
10. Wahl S.M., Mc Cartney-Francis N., Mergenhagen S.E. Inflammatory and immunoregulatory role of transforming growth factor β Immunol. Today. 10:1989;258-261.
11. McCartney-Francis N.L., Wahl S.M. Transforming growth factor β a matter of life and death. J. Leukoc. Biol. 55:1994;401-409.
12. Swain S.L., Huston L.G., Tonkonogy S., Weinberg A. Transforming growth factor-β and IL-4 cause helper T cell precursors develop into distinct effector helper cells that differ in lymphokine secretion pattern and cell surface phenotype. J. Immunol. 147:1991;2991-3000.
13. Cerwenka A., Bevec D., Majdic O., Knapp W., Holter W. TGF-β 1 is a potent inducer of human effector T cells. J. Immunol. 153:1994;4367-4377.
14. Hoehn P., Goedert S., Germann T., Koelsch S., Jin S., Palm N., Ruede E., Schmitt E. Opposing effects of TGF-beta 2 on the Th1 cell development of naive CD4+ T cells isolated from different mouse strains. J. Immunol. 155:1995;3788-3793.
15. Zamvil S.S., Mitchell D.J., Moore A.C., Kitamura K., Steinman L., Rothbard J.B. T-cell epitope of the autoantigen myelin basic protein that induces encephalomyelitis. Nature. 324:1986;258-260.
16. Nagler-Anderson C., Bober C.A., Robinson M., Siskind G. Thorbecke G, Suppression of type II collagen-induced arthritis by intragastric administration of soluble type II collagen. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 83:1983;7443-7446.
17. Wahl S.M., Allen J.B., Ohura K., Chenoweth D.E., Hand A.R. IFN-γ inhibits inflammatory cell recruitment and the evolution of bacterial cell wall-induced arthritis. J. Immunol. 146:1991;95-100.
18. Zhang Z.J., Davidson L.E., Eisenbarth G., Weiner H.L. Suppression of diabetes in NOD mice by oral administration of porcine insulin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 88:1991;10252-10256.
19. Wahl S.M. TGF-β in inflammation a cause and a cure. J. Clin. Immunol. 12:1992;61.
20. Kehrl J.H., Wakefield L.M., Roberts A.B., Jakowelw S., Alvarez-Mon M., Derynck R., Sporn M.B., Fauci A.S. Production of transforming growth factor β by human T lymphocytes and its potential role in the regulation of T cell growth. J. Exp. M. 163:1986;1037-1050.
21. Miller A., Lider O., Roberts A.B., Sporn M.B., Weiner H.L. Suppressor T cells generated by oral tolerization to myelin basic protein suppress both in vitro and in vivo immune responses by the release of transforming growth factor b after antigen specific triggering. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89:1992;421-425.
22. Tsunawaki S., Sporn M., Ding A., Nathan C. Deactivation of macrophages by transforming growth factor-beta. Nature. 334:1988;260-262.
23. Wahl S.M., Mc Cartney-Francis N., Allen J.B., Dougherty E.B., Dougherty S.F. Macrophage production of TGF-beta and regulation by TGF-beta. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 593:1990;188-196.
24. Johns L.D., Flanders K.C., Ranges G.E., Sriram S. Successful treatment of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis with transforming growth factor-β1. J. Immunol. 147:1991;1792-1796.
25. Chen Y., Kuchroo V.K., Inobe J., Hafler D.A., Weiner H.L. Regulatory T cell clones induced by oral tolerance suppression of autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Science. 265:1994;1237-1240.
26. Allen J.B., Malone D.G., Wahl S.M., Calandra G.B., Wilder R.L. Role of the thymus in streptococcal cell wall-induced arthritis and hepatic granuloma formation. J. Clin. Invest. 76:1985;1042-1056.
27. Kouskoff V., Korganow A.S., Duchatelle V., Degott C., Benoist C., Mathis D. Organ-specific disease provoked by systemic autoimmunity. Cell. 87:1996;811-822.
28. Racke M.K., Dhib-Jalbut S., Cannella B., Albert P.S., Raine C.S., McFarlin D.E. Prevention and treatment of chronic relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by transforming growth factor-β J. Immunol. 146:1991;3012-3017.
29. Kuruvilla A.P., Shah R., Hochwald G.M., Liggitt H.D., Palladino M.A., Thorbecke G.J. Protective effect of transforming growth factor β1 on experimental autoimmune diseases in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 88:1991;2918-2921.
30. Crisi G.M., Santambrogio L., Hochwald G.M., Smith S.R., Carlino J.A., Thorbecke G.J. Staphylococcal enterotoxin B and tumor-necrosis factor-alpha-induced relapses of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis protection by transforming growth factor-beta and interleukin-10. Eur. J. Immunol. 25:1995;3035-3040.
31. Racke M.K., Sriram S., Carlino J., Cannella B., Raine C.S., McFarlin D.E. Long-term treatment of chronic relapsing experimental allergic encephalomelitis by transforming growth factor-beta 2. J. Neuroimmunol. 46:1993;175-183.
32. Thorbecke G.J., Shah R., Leu C.H., Kuruvilla A.P., Hardison A.M., Palladino M.A. Involvement of endogenous tumor necrosis factor alpha and transforming growth factor bets during induction of collagen type II arthritis in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89:1992;7375-7379.
33. Brandes M.E., Allen J.B., Ogawa Y., Wahl S.M. Transforming growth factor β1 suppresses acute and chronic arthritis in experimental animals. J. Clin. Invest. 87:1991;1108-1113.
34. Chen W.J., Jin W., Cook M., Weiner H.L., Wahl S.M. Oral delivery of group A streptococcal cell walls augments circulating TGF-β and suppresses SCW arthritis. J. Immunol. 161:1998;6297-6304.
35. Wahl S.M., Allen J.B., Costa G.L., Wong H.L., Dasch J.R. Reversal of acute and chronic synovial inflammation by anti-transforming growth factor-β J. Exp. M. 177:1993;225-230.
36. Border W.A., Ruoslahti E. Transforming growth factor-beta in disease the dark side of tissue repair. J. Clin. Invest. 90:1992;1-7.
37. Border W.A., Noble N.A., Yamamoto T., Harper J.R., Yamaguchi Y., Pierschbacher M.D., Ruoslahti E. Natural inhibitor of transforming growth factor-beta protects against scarring in experimental kidney disease. Nature. 360:1992;361-364.
38. Shah M., Foreman D.M., Ferguson M.W. Neutralising antibody to TGF-beta 12 reduces cutaneous scarring in adult rodents. J. Cell Sci. 107:1994;1137-1157.
39. Beuningen H.M.V., Kraan P.M.V.D., Arntz O.J., Berg W.B.V.D. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 stimulates articular chondrocyte proteoglycan synthesis osteophyte formation in the murine knee joint. Lab. Invest. 71:1994;279-290.
40. Glansbeek H.L., Beuningen H.M.V., Vitters E.L., Kraan P.M.V.D., Berg W.B.V.D. Stimulation of articular cartilage repair in established arthritis by local administration of transforming growth factor-beta into murine knee joints. Lab. Invest. 78:1998;133-142.
41. Allen J.B., Manthey C.L., Hand A.R., Ohura K., Ellingsworth L., Wahl S.M. Rapid onset synovial inflammation and hyperplasia induced by transforming growth factor beta. J. Exp. M. 171:1990;231-247.
42. Chernajovsky Y., Adams G., Triantaphyllopoulos K., Ledda M.F., Podhajcer O. L, Pathogenic lymphoid cells engineered to express TGF beta 1 ameliorate disease in a collagen-induced arthritis model. Gene Ther. 4:1997;553-559.
43. Song X., Gu M., Jin W., Klinman D., Wahl S.M. Plasmid DNA encoding transforming growth factor-β1 suppresses chronic disease in a streptococcal cell wall-induced arthritis model. J. Clin. Invest. 101:1998;2615-2621.
44. Piccirillo C.A., Chang Y., Prud'homme G.J. TGF-beta1 somatic gene therapy prevents autoimmune disease in nonobese diabetic mice. J. Immunol. 161:1998;3950-3956.
45. Chen L.Z., Hochwald G.M., Huang C., Dakin G., Tao H., Cheng C., Simmons W.J., Dranoff G., Thorbecke G.J. Gene therapy in allergic encephalomylitis using myelin protein-specific T cells engineered to express latent transforming growth factor-β1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95:1998;12516-12521.
46. Croxford J.L., Triantaphyllopoulos K., Podhajcer O.L., Feldman M., Baker D., Chernajovsky V. Cytokine gene therapy in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by injection of plasmid DNA-cationic liposome complex into the central nervous system. J. Immunol. 160:1998;5181-5187.
47. Shaw M.K., Lorens J.B., Dhawan A., Dalcanto R., Tse H.Y., Tran A.B., Bonpane C., Eswaran S.L., Brocke S., Sarvetnick N., Steinman L., Nolan G.P., Fathman C.G. Local delivery of interleukin 4 by retrovirus-transduced T lymphocytes ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Exp. M. 185:1997;1711-1714.
48. Mathisen P.M., Yu M., Johnson J.M., Drazba J.A., Tuohy V.K. Treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis with genetically modified memory T cells. J. Exp. M. 186:1997;159-164.
49. Weiner H.L. Oral tolerance immune mechanisms and treatment of autoimmune diseases. Immunol. Today. 18:1997;335-343.
50. Seroogy C.M., Fathman C.G. A gene therapy approach to treatment of autoimmune disease. Immunol. Res. 18:1998;15-26.
51. Weiner H.L. Oral tolerance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91:1994;10762-10765.
52. Strober W., Kelsall B., Marth T. Oral tolerance. J. Clin. Immunol. 18:1998;1-30.
53. Whitacre C.C., Gienapp I.E., Orosz C.G., Bitar D.M. Oral tolerance in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis III, evidence for clonal anergy. J. Immunol. 147:1991;2155-2163.
54. Khoury S.J., Hancock W.W., Weiner H.L. Oral tolerance to myelin basic protein and natural recovery from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis are associated with downregulation of inflammatory cytokines and differential upregulation of transforming growth factor beta interleukin 4 and prostaglandin E expression in the brain. J. Exp. M. 176:1992;1355-1364.
55. Lider O., Santos L.M.B., Lee C.S.Y., Higgins D.J., Weiner H.L. Suppression of experimental autoimmune encephalomelitis by oral administration of myelin basic protein II. Suppression of disease and in vitro response is mediated by CD8+ T lymphocytes. J. Immunol. 142:1989;748-752.
56. Rosbo N.K.D., Milo R., Lees M.B., Burger D., Bernard C.C. Ben-Nun A, Reactivity to myelin antigens in multiple sclerosis. Peripheral blood lymphocytes respond predominantly to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. J. Clin Invest. 92:1993;2602-2608.
57. Zhang Z., Lee C., Lider O., Weiner H.L. Suppression of adjuvant arthritis by oral administration of type II collagen. J. Immunol. 145:1990;2489.
58. Ploix C., Bergerot I., Fabien N., Perche S., Moulin V., Thivolet C. Protection against autoimmune diabetes with oral insulin is associated with the presence of IL-4 type 2 T cells in the pancreas and pancreatic lymph nodes. Diabetes. 47:1998;39-44.
59. Maron R., Palanivel V., Weiner H.L., Harn D.A. Oral administration of schistosome egg antigens and insulin B-chain generates and enhances Th2-type responses in NOD mice. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 87:1998;85-92.
60. Chen Y., Inobe J., Marks R., Gonnella P., Kuchroo V.K., Weiner H.L. Peripheral deletion of antigen-reactive T cells in oral tolerance. Nature. 376:1995;177-180.
61. Chen Y., Inobe J., Weiner H.L. Induction of oral tolerance to myelin basic protein in CD8-depleted mice both CD4+ and CD8+ cells mediate active suppression. J. Immunol. 155:1995;910-916.
62. Fujihashi K., Kiyono H., Aicher W.K., Green D.R., Singh B., Eldridge J.H., McGhee J.R. Immunoregulatory function of CD3+ CD4- and CD8- T cells. Gamma delta T cell receptor-positive T cells from nude mice abrogate oral tolerance. J. Immunol. 143:1989;3415-3422.
63. Ke Y., Pearce K., Lake J.P., Ziegler H.K., Kapp J.A. Gamma delta T lymphocytes regulate the induction and maintenance of oral tolerance. J. Immunol. 158:1997;3610-3618.
64. Mengel J., Cardillo F., Aroeira L.S., Williams O., Russo M., V.A.Z Nm. Anti-gamma delta T cell antibody blocks the induction and maintenance of oral tolerance to ovalbumin in mice. Immunol. Lett. 48:1995;97-102.
65. Shi F.D., Bai X.F., Li H.L., Huang Y.M., Meide P.H.V.D., Link H. Nasal tolerance in experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis (EAMG) induction of protective tolerance in primed animals. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 111:1998;506-512.
66. Bai X.F., Shi F.D., Xiao B.G., Li H.L., Meide P.H.V.D., Link H. Nasal administration of myelin basic protein prevents relapsing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in DA rats by activating regulatory cells expressing IL-4 and TGF-beta mRNA. J. Neuroimmunol. 80:1997;65-75.
67. Khoury S.J., Sayegh M.H., Gallon L., Hancock W.W., Carpenter C.B., Weiner H.L. Acquired tolerance to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by intrathymic injection of myelin basic protein or its major encephalitogenic peptide. J. Exp. M. 178:1993;559-566.
68. Chen W.J., Issazadeh S., Sayegh M.H., Khoury S.J. In vivo mechanisms of acquired thymic tolerance. Cell. Immunol. 179:1997;165-173.
69. Chen W.J., Sayegh M.H., Khoury S.J. Mechanisms of acquired thymic tolerance in vivo intrathymic injection of antigen induces apoptosis of thymocytes and peripheral T cell anergy. J. Immunol. 160:1998;1504-1508.
70. Mason D., Powrie F. Control of immune pathology by regulatory T cells. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 10:1998;649-655.
71. Morrissey P.J., Charrier K., Braddy S., Liggit D., Watson Jd. CD4+ T cells that express high levels of CD45RB induce wasting disease when transferred into congenic severe combined immunodeficient mice. Disease development is prevented by cotransfer of purified CD4+ T cells. J. Exp. M. 178:1993;237-244.
72. Powrie F., Leach M.W., Mauze S., Caddle L.B., Coffman R.L. Phenotypically distinct subsets of CD4+ T cells induce or protect from chronic intestinal inflammation in C, B-17 scid mice. Int. Immunol. 5:1993;1461-1471.
73. Powrie F., Leach M.W., Mauze S., Menon S., Caddle L.B., Coffman R.L. Inhibition of Th1 responses prevents inflammatory bowel disease in scid mice reconstituted with CD45RBhi CD4+ T cells. Immunity. 1:1994;553-562.
74. Seddon B., Mason D. Peripheral autoantigen induces regulatory T cells that prevent autoimmunity. J. Exp. M. 189:1999;877-882.
75. Powrie F., Carlino J., Leach M.W., Mauze S., Coffman R.L. A critical role of transforming growth factor-β but not interleukine-4 in the suppression of T helper type-1-mediated colitis by CD45RBlow CD4+ T cells. J. Exp. M. 183:1996;2669-2674.
76. Neurath M.F., Fuss I., Kelsall B.L., Presky D.H., Wargell W., Strober W. Experimental granulomatous colitis in mice is abrogated by induction of TGF-beta-mediated oral tolerance. J. Exp. M. 183:1996;2605-2616.
77. Fowell D., Mason D. Evidence that the T cell repertoire of normal rats contains cells with the potential to cause diabetes. Characterization of the CD4+ T cell subset that inhibits this autoimmune potential. J. Exp. M. 177:1993;627-636.
78. Han H.S., Jun H.S., Utsugi T., Yoon J.W. Molecular role of TGF-beta secreted from a new type of CD4+ suppressor T cell NY4, 2 in the prevention of autoimmune IDDM in NOD mice. J. Autoimmun. 10:1997;299-307.
79. Groux H., O'Garra A., Bigler M., Rouleau M., Antonenko S., Vries J.E.D., Roncarolo M.G. A CD4+ T-cell subset inhibits antigen-specific T cell responses and prevents colitis. Nature. 389:1997;737-742.
80. Seder R.A., Marth T., Sieve M.C., Strober W., Letterio J.J., Roberts A.B., Kelsall B. Factors involved in the differentiation of TGF-β-producing cells from naive CD4+ T cells IL-4 and IFN-γ have opposing effects while TGF-β positively regulates its own production. J. Immunol. 160:1998;5719-5728.
81. O'Garra A., Steinman L., Gijbels K. CD4+ T-cell subsets in autoimmunity. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 9:1997;872-873.
82. Williams C.B., Vidal K., Donermeyer D., Peterson D.A., White J.M., Allen P.M. In vivo expression of a TCR antagonist T cells escape central tolerance but are antagonized in the periphery. J. Immunol. 161:1998;128-137.
83. Kumar V., Stellrecht K., Sercarz E. Inactivation of T cell receptor peptide-specific CD4 regulatory T cells induces chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). J. Exp. M. 184:1996;1609-1617.
84. Bemelman F., Honey K., Adams E., Cobbold S., Waldmann H. Bone marrow transplantation induces either clonal deletion or infectious tolerance depending on the dose. J. Immunol. 160:1998;2645-2648.
85. Taguchi O., Nishizuka Y. Self tolerance and localized autoimmunity. Mouse models of autoimmune disease that suggest tissue-specific suppressor T cells are involved in self tolerance. J. Exp. M. 165:1987;146-156.
86. Bluestone J. Is CTLA4 a master switch for peripheral T cell tolerance? J. Immunol. 158:1997;1989-1993.
87. Abbas A., Murphy K., Sher A. Functional diversity of helper T lymphocytes. Nature. 383:1996;783-793.
88. Linsley P.S. Distinct role for CD28 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated molecule-4 receptors during T cell activation. J. Exp. M. 182:1995;289-292.
89. Perez V.L., Parijs L.V., Biuckians A., Zheng X.X., Strom T.B., Abbas A.K. Induction of peripheral T cell tolerance in vivo requires CTLA-4 engagement. Immunity. 6:1997;411-417.
90. Kirk A.D., Harlan D.M., Armstrong N.N., Davis T.A., Dong Y., Gray G.S., Hong X., Thomas D., Knechtle S.J. CTLA4-Ig and anti-CD40 ligand prevent renal allograft rejection in primates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94:1997;8789-8794.
91. Grewal I.S., Flavell R.A. CD40 and CD154 in cell-mediated immunity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 16:1998;111-135.
92. Chen W.J., Jin W.W., Wahl S.M. Engagement of CTLA-4 induces transforming growth factor-β production by murine CD4+ T cells. J. Exp. M. 188:1998;1849-1857.
93. Allison J.P., Krummel M.F. The Yin and Yang of T cell costimulation. Science. 270:1995;932-933.
94. Krummel M., Allison J. CTLA4 engagement inhibits IL-2 accumulation and cell cycle progression upon activation of resting T cells. J. Exp. M. 183:1996;2533-2540.
95. Walunas T., Bakker C., Bluestone J. CTLA4 ligation blocks CD28-dependent T cell activation. J. Exp. M. 183:1996;2541-2550.
96. Waterhouse P., Penninger J., Timms E., Wakeham A., Shahinian A., Lee K., Thompson C., Griesser H., Mak T. Lymphoproliferative disorders with early lethality in mice deficient in CTLA-4. Science. 270:1995;985-988.
97. Tivol E., Borriello F., Schweitzer A., Lynch W., Bluestone J., Sharpe A. Loss of CTLA4 leads to massive lymphoproliferation and fatal multiorgan tissue destruction. Immunity. 3:1995;541-547.
98. Leach D., Krummel M., Allison J. Enhancement of antitumor immunity by CTLA4 blockade. Science. 271:1996;1734-1736.
99. Salomon B., Bluestone J.A. LFA-1 interaction with ICAM-1 and ICAM-2 regulates Th2 cytokine production. J. Immunol. 161:1998;5138-5142.
100. Czarniecki C.W., Chiu H.H., Wong G.H., McCabe S.M., Polladino M.A. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 modulates the expression of class II histocompatibility antigens on human cells. J. Immunol. 140:1988;4217-4223.
101. Maeda H., Shiraishi A. TGF-beta contributes to the shift toward Th2-type responses through direct and IL-10 -mediated pathways in tumor-bearing mice. J. Immunol. 156:1996;73-78.
102. Schmitt E., Hoehn P., Huels C., Goedert S., Palm N., Rude E. Germann T, T helper type 1 development of naive CD4+ T cells requires the coordinate action of interleukin-12 and interferon-γ and is inhibited by transforming growth factor-β Eur. J. Immunol. 24:1994;793-798.
103. Lee H.M., Rich S. Co-stimulation of T cell proliferation by transforming growth factor-β 1. J. Immunol. 147:1991;1127.
104. Gamble J.R., Khew-Goodall Y., Vadas M.A. Transforming growth factor-β inhibits E-selectin expression on human endothelial cells. J. Immunol. 150:1993;4494-4503.
105. Calabresi P.A., Fields N.S., Maloni H.W., Hanham A., Carlino J., Moore J., Levin M.C., Dhib-Jalbut S., Tranquill L.R., Austin H., Macfarland H.F., Racke M.K. Phase 1 trial of transforming growth factor beta 2 in chronic progressive MS. Neurology. 51:1998;289-292.
106. Kekow J., Reihold D., Pap T., Ansorge S. Intravenous immunoglobulins and transforming growth factor beta. Lancet. 351:1998;184-185.
107. Abramsky O., Lehmann D., Karussis D. Immunomodulation with linomide possible novel therapy for multiple sclerosis. Mult. Scler. 2:1996;206-210.
108. Coutant R., Landais P., Rosilio M., Johnsen C., Lahlou N., Chatelain P., Carel J.C., Ludvigsson J., Boitard C., Bougneres P.F. Low dose linomide in Type I juvenile diabetes of recent onset a randomized placebo-controlled double blind trial. Diabetologia. 41:1998;1040-1046.
109. Tian W.Z., Navikas V., Matusevicius D., Soderstrom M., Fredrikson S., Hedlund G., Link H. Linomide (roquinimex) affects the balance between pro- and anti- inflammatory cytokines in vitro in multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol. Scand. 98:1998;94-101.
110. Cantorna M.T., Woodward W.D., Hayes C.E., Deluca H.F. 125-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is a positive regulator for the two anti- encephalitogenic cytokines TGF-beta 1 and IL-4. J. Immunol. 160:1998;5314-5319.
111. Shin G.T., Khanna A., Ding R., Sharma V.K., Lagman M., Li B., Suthanthiran M. In vivo expression of transforming growth factor-beta1 in humans stimulation by cyclosporine. Transplantation. 65:1998;313-318.
112. Barnett M.L., Kremer J.M., Clair E.M., Clegg D.O., Furst D., Weisman M., Fletcher M.J., Chasan-Taber S., Finger E., Morales A., Le C.H., Tretham D.E. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with oral type II collagen, results of a multicenter double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. 41:1998;290-297.
113. Kalden J.R., Sieper J. Oral collagen in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 41:1998;191-194.
114. Inobe J., Slavin A.J., Komagata Y., Chen Y., Liu L., Weiner H.L. IL-4 is a differentiation factor for transforming growth factor-beta secreting Th3 cells and oral administration of IL-4 enhances oral tolerance in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Eur. J. Immunol. 28:1998;2780-2790.
115. Kulkarni A.B., Huh C.H., Becker D., Gerser A., Lyght M., Flanders K.C, Roberts A.B., Sporn M.B., Ward J.M., Karlsson S. Transforming growth factor-β null mutation in mice causes excessive inflammatory response and early death. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 90:1993;770-774.
116. Chen W.J., Wahl S.M. What is the basic mechanism by which TGF-β works to control arthritis and inflammation? Which patients are the best candidates for this treatment? J. Musculoskeletal. M. 1999;. in press.