Polymorphism in systematics and comparative biology

Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics

Volumn 30, Issue , 1999, Pages 327-362

  Wiens, John J ^a  

^a SECTION OF VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

Comparative methods; Intraspecific variation; Phylogenetic analysis; Phylogeny; Species limits

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY; PHYLOGENY; POLYMORPHISM;

EID: 0033382149     PISSN: 00664162     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.30.1.327     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. Archie JW. 1985. Methods for coding variable morphological features for numerical taxonomic analysis. Syst. Zool. 34:326-345
2. Archie JW, Simon C, Martin A. 1989. Small sample size does decrease the stability of dendrograms calculated from allozyme-frequency data. Evolution 43:678-83
3. Avise JC, Ball RM. 1990. Principles of genealogical concordance in species concepts and biological taxonomy. Oxford Surv. Evol. Biol. 7:45-67
4. Avise JC, Arnold J, Ball RM, Bermingham E, Lamb T, et al. 1987. Intraspecific phylogeography: the mitochondrial DNA bridge between population genetics and systematics. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18:489-522
5. Baum DA, Donoghue MJ. 1995. Choosing among alternative "phylogenetic" species concepts. Syst. Bot. 20:560-73
6. Benabib M, Kjer KM, Sites JW Jr. 1997. Mitochondrial DNA sequence-based phylogeny and the evolution of viviparity in the Sceloporus scalaris group (Reptilia: Squamata). Evolution 51:1262-75
7. Berlocher SH, Swofford DL. 1997. Searching for phylogenetic trees under the frequency parsimony criterion: an approximation using generalized parsimony. Syst. Biol. 46:211-15
8. Bowcock AM, Ruiz-Linares A, Tomfohrde J, Minch E, Kidd JR, Cavalli-Sforza LL. 1994. High resolution of human evolutionary trees with polymorphic microsatellites. Nature 368:455-57
9. Brooks DR, McLennan DA. 1991 Phylogeny, Ecology, and Behavior: A Research Program in Comparative Biology. Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press
10. Brumfield RT, Capparella AP. 1996. Historical diversification of birds in northwestern South America: a molecular perspective on the role of vicariant events. Evolution 50:1607-24
11. Buth DG. 1984. The application of electrophoretic data in systematic studies. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 15:501-22
12. Campbell JA, Frost DR. 1993. Anguid lizards of the genus Abronia: revisionary notes, description of four new species, a phylogenetic analysis, and key. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 216:1-121
13. Cavalli-Sforza LL, Edwards AWF. 1967. Phylogenetic analysis: models and estimation procedures. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 19: 233-57
14. Chu PC. 1998. A phylogeny of the gulls (Aves: Larinae) inferred from osteological and integumentary characters. Cladistics 14:1-43
15. Cliff AD, Ord JK. 1973. Spatial Autocorrelation. London: Pion
16. Coloma LA. 1997. Morphology, sytematics and phylogenetic relationships among frogs of the genus Atelopus (Anura: Bufonidae). PhD thesis, Univ. Kansas. 287 pp
17. Crandall KA. 1994. Intraspecific cladogram estimation: accuracy at higher levels of divergence. Syst. Biol. 43:222-35
18. Crandall KA, Fitzpatrick JF. 1996. Cray-fish molecular systematics: using a combination of procedures to estimate phylogeny. Syst. Biol. 45:1-26
19. Crandall KA, Templeton AR, Sing CF 1994. Intraspecific phylogenetics: problems and solutions. In Models in Phylogeny Reconstruction, ed. RW Scotland, DJ Siebert, DM Williams, pp. 273-97. Oxford, UK: Clarendon
20. Crother BI. 1990. Is "some better than none" or do allele frequencies contain phylogenetically useful information? Cladistics 6:277-81
21. Cunningham CW, Omland KE, Oakley TH. 1998. Reconstructing ancestral character states: a critical reappraisal. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13:361-66
22. Darwin C. 1859. On the Origin of Species. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press
23. Davis JT, Nixon KC. 1992. Populations, genetic variation, and the delimitation of phylogenetic species. Syst. Biol. 41:421-35
24. de Queiroz K, Donoghue MJ. 1988. Phylogenetic systematics and the species problem. Cladistics 4:317-38
25. de Queiroz K, Good DA. 1997. Phenetic clustering in biology: a critique. Q. Rev. Biol. 72:3-30
26. Diaz-Uriarte R, Garland T. 1996. Testing hypotheses of correlated evolution using phylogenetically independent contrasts: sensitivity to deviations from Brownian motion. Syst. Biol. 45:27-47
27. Domning DP. 1994. A phylogenetic analysis of the Sirenia. Proc. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 29:177-89
28. Donoghue MJ. 1989. Phylogenies and the analysis of evolutionary sequences, with examples from seed plants. Evolution 43:1137-56
29. Donoghue MJ, Ackerly DD. 1996. Phylogenetic uncertainties and sensitivity analysis in comparative biology. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 351:1241-49
30. Doyle JJ. 1995. The irrelevance of allele tree topology for species delimitation, and a non-topological alternative. Syst. Bot. 20:574-588
31. Echelle AA, Echelle AS. 1998. Evolutionary relationships of pupfishes in the Cyprinodon eximius complex (Atherinomorpha: Cyprinodontiformes). Copeia 1998:852-65
32. Farris JS. 1966. Estimation of conservatism of characters by constancy within biological populations. Evolution 20:587-91
33. Farris JS. 1981. Distance data in phylogenetic analysis. In Advances in Cladistics, Volume 1. Proceedings of the First Meeting of the Willi Hennig Society, ed. VA Funk, DR Brooks, pp. 3-23. New York: New York Bot. Gard.
34. Farris JS. 1985. Distance data revisited. Cladistics 1:67-85
35. Farris JS. 1986. Distances and Cladistics. Cladistics 2:144-57
36. Farris JS. 1990. Phenetics in camouflage. Cladistics 6:91-100
37. Felsenstein J. 1978. Cases in which parsimony or compatibility methods will be positively misleading. Syst. Zool. 27:401-10
38. Felsenstein J. 1981. Evolutionary trees from gene frequencies and quantitative characters: finding maximum likelihood estimates. Evolution 35:1229-42
39. Felsenstein J. 1984. Distance methods for inferring phylogenies: a justification. Evolution 38:16-24
40. Felsenstein J. 1985. Phylogenies from gene frequencies: a statistical problem. Syst. Zool. 34:300-11
41. Felsenstein J. 1985. Phylogenies and the comparative method. Am. Nat. 125:1-15
42. Felsenstein J. 1985. Confidence limits on phylogenies: an approach using the bootstrap. Evolution 39:783-91
43. Felsenstein J. 1986. Distance methods: a reply to Farris. Cladistics 2:130-43
44. Felsenstein J. 1988. Phylogenies and quantitative characters. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 19:445-71
45. Felsenstein J. 1992. Estimating effective population sizes from samples of sequences: inefficiency of pairwise and segregation sites as compared to phylogenetic estimates. Genet. Res. Camb. 56:139-57
46. Fitch WM, Margoliash E. 1967. Construction of phylogenetic trees. Science 155:279-84
47. Foster SA, Cresko WA, Johnson KP, Tlusty MU, Willmott HE. 1996. Patterns of homoplasy in behavioral evolution. In Homoplasy. The Recurrence of Similarity in Evolution, ed. MJ Sanderson, L Hufford, pp. 245-69. San Diego, CA: Academic
48. Frost DR, Hillis DM. 1990. Species in concept and practice: herpetological applications. Herpetologica 46:87-104
49. Frost DR, Kluge AG. 1994. A consideration of epistemology in systematic biology, with special reference to species. Cladistics 10:259-94
50. Gaines MS, McLenaghan LR, Rose RK. 1978. Temporal patterns of allozyme variation in fluctuating populations of Microtus ochrogaster. Evolution 32:723-39
51. Golding B, Felsenstein J. 1990. A maximum likelihood approach to the detection of selection from a phylogeny. J. Mol. Evol. 31:511-23
52. Goldman N. 1988. Methods for discrete coding of variable morphological features for numerical analysis. Cladistics 4:59-71
53. 52a. Goldstein DB, Linares AR, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Feldman MW. 1995. An evaluation of genetic distances for use with microsatellite data. Genetics 139:463-71
54. 52b. Golstein DB, Pollock DD. 1997. Launching microsatellites: a review of mutation processes and methods of phylogenetic inference. J. Hered. 88:335-42
55. Good DA. 1989. Hybridization and cryptic species in Dicamptodon (Caudata: Dicamptodontidae). Evolution 43:728-44
56. Graybeal A. 1995. Naming species. Syst. Biol. 44:237-50
57. Grismer LL. 1999. Phylogeny, taxonomy, and biogeography of Cnemidophorus hyperythrus and C. ceralbensis (Squamata: Teiidae) in Baja California, Mexico. Herpetologica 55: In press
58. Gutberlet RL Jr. 1998. The phylogenetic position of the Mexican black-tailed pitviper (Squamata: Viperidae: Crotalinae). Herpetologica 54:184-206
59. Halloy M, Etheridge RE, Burghardt GM. 1998. To bury in sand: phylogenetic relationships among lizard species of the boulengeri group, Liolaemus (Reptilia: Squamata: Tropiduridae), based on behavioral characters. Herpetol. Monogr. 12:1-37
60. Hansen TF, Martins EP. 1996. Translating between microevolutionary process and macroevolutionary patterns: the correlation structure of interspecific data. Evolution 50:1404-17
61. Harvey M, Gutberlet RL Jr. 1999. A phylogenetic analysis of the Tropidurini (Squamata: Tropiduridae) using new characters of squamation and epidermal microstructure. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. In press
62. Harvey PH, Pagel MD. 1991. The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
63. Hedin MC. 1997. Speciational history in a diverse clade of habitat specialized spiders (Araneae: Nesticidae: Nesticus): inferences from geographic based sampling. Evolution 51:1929-45
64. Hey J. 1993. Using phylogenetic trees to study speciation and extinction. Evolution 46:627-40
65. Highton R. 1989. Biochemical evolution in the slimy salamanders of the Plethodon glutinosus complex in the eastern United States. Part I. Geographic protein variation. Univ. Ill. Biol. Monogr. 57:1-78
66. Highton R. 1998. Is Ensatina escholtzii a ring-species? Herpetologica 54:254-78
67. Hillis DM. 1995. Approaches for assessing phylogenetic accuracy. Syst. Biol. 44:3-16
68. Hillis DM, Mable BK, Moritz C. 1996 Applications of molecular systematics: the state of the field and a look to the future. In Molecular Systematics, ed. DM Hillis, C Moritz, B Mable, pp. 515-43. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer. 2nd ed.
69. Hollingsworth BD. 1998. The systematics of chuckwallas (Sauromalus) with a phylogenetic analysis of other iguanid lizards. Herpetol. Monogr. 12:38-191
70. Huelsenbeck JP, Hillis DM. 1993. Success of phylogenetic methods in the fourtaxon case. Syst. Biol. 42:247-64
71. Huelsenbeck JP. 1995. The performance of phylogenetic methods in simulation. Syst. Biol. 44:17-48.
72. Huelsenbeck JP. 1998. Systematic bias in phylogenetic analysis: is the Strepsiptera problem solved? Syst. Biol. 47:519-37
73. Jones TR, Kluge AG, Wolf AJ. 1993. When theories and methodologies clash: a phylogenetic reanalysis of the North American ambystomatid salamanders (Caudata: Ambystomatidae). Syst. Biol. 42:92-102
74. Kim J, Burgman MA. 1988. Accuracy of phylogenetic-estimation methods under unequal evolutionary rates. Evolution 42:596-602
75. Kimura M. 1955. Random genetic drift in multi-allelic locus. Evolution 9:419-35
76. Kluge AG. 1989. A concern for evidence and a phylogenetic hypothesis among Epicrates (Boidae, Serpentes). Syst. Zool. 38:7-25
77. Mabee PM, Humphries J. 1993. Coding polymorphic data: examples from allozymes and ontogeny. Syst. Biol. 42:166-81
78. Maddison WP. 1990. A method for testing the correlated evolution of two binary characters: are gains or losses concentrated on certain branches of a phylogenetic tree? Evolution 44:539-57
79. Maddison WP. 1995. Calculating the probability distributions of ancestral states reconstructed by parsimony on phylogenetic trees. Syst. Biol. 44:474-81
80. Maddison WP. 1997. Gene trees in species trees. Syst. Biol. 46:523-36
81. Maddison WP, Maddison DR. 1992. Mac-Clade Ver. 3.0. Analysis of Phytogeny and Character Evolution. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer
82. Maddison WP, Slatkin M. 1990. Parsimony reconstructions of ancestral states do not depend on the relative distances between linearly-ordered states. Syst. Zool. 39:175-78
83. Mantel N. 1967. The detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach. Cancer Res. 27:209-20
84. Martins EP (ed.). 1996. Phytogenies and the Comparative Method in Animal Behavior. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
85. Martins EP. 1996. Phylogenies, spatial autoregression, and the comparative method: a computer simulation test. Evolution 1750-65
86. Martins EP, Garland T Jr. 1991. Phylogenetic analyses of the correlated evolution of continuous characters: a simulation study. Evolution 45:534-57
87. Martins EP, Hansen TF. 1997. Phylogenies and the comparative method: a general approach to incorporating phylogenetic information into the analysis of interspecific data. Am. Nat. 149:646-67
88. Mayr E. 1969. Principles of Systematic Zoology. New York: McGraw-Hill
89. McGuire JA. 1996. Phylogenetic systematics of crotaphytid lizards (Reptilia: Iguania: Crotaphytidae). Bull. Carnegie Mus. Nat. Hist. 32:1-143
90. Mendoza-Quijano F, Flores-Villela O, Sites JW Jr. 1998. Genetic variation, species status, and phylogenetic relationships in rose-bellied lizards (variabilis group) of the genus Sceloporus (Squamata: Phrynosomatidae). Copeia 1998:354-66
91. Meyer E, Wiegand P, Rand SP, Kuhlmann D, Brack M, Brinkman B. 1995. Microsatellite polymorphisms reveal phylogenetic relationships in primates. J. Mol. Evol. 41:10-14
92. Mickevich MF. 1978. Taxonomic congruence. Syst. Zool. 27:143-58
93. Mickevich MF, Johnson MS. 1976. Congruence between morphological and allozyme data in evolutionary inference and character evolution. Syst. Zool. 25:260-70
94. Mickevich MF, Mitter C. 1981. Treating polymorphic characters in systematics: a phylogenetic treatment of electrophoretic data. In Advances in Cladistics. Volume 1. Proceeding of the first meeting of the Willi Hennig Society, ed. V. A. Funk and D. R. Brooks, pp. 45-58. New York: New York Bot. Gard.
95. Mickevich MF, Mitter C. 1983. Evolutionary patterns in allozyme data: a systematic approach. In Advances in Cladistics. Vol. 2. Proceeding of the Second Meeting of the Willi Hennig Society, ed. NI Platnick, VA Funk, pp. 169-76. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
96. Mink DG, Sites JW Jr. 1996. Species-limits, phylogenetic relationships, and origins of viviparity in the scalaris complex of the lizard genus Sceloporus (Phrynosomatidae: Sauria). Herpetologica 52:551-71
97. Miyamoto MM, Fitch WM. 1995. Testing species phylogenies and phylogenetic methods with congruence. Syst. Biol. 44:64-76
98. Murphy RW. 1993. The phylogenetic analysis of allozyme data: invalidity of coding alleles by presence/absence and recommended procedures. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 21:25-38
99. Murphy RW, Doyle KD. 1998. Phylophenetics: frequencies and polymorphic characters in genealogical estimation. Syst. Biol. 47:737-61
100. Nei M. 1972. Genetic distance between populations. Am. Nat. 106:238-92
101. Neigel JE, Avise JC. 1986. Phylogenetic relationships of mitochondrial DNA under various demographic models of speciation. In Evolutionary Processes and Theory, ed. E Nevo, S Karlin, pp. 515-34, New York: Academic
102. Nielsen R, Mountain JL, Huelsenbeck JP, Slatkin M. 1998. Maximum likelihood estimation of population divergence times and population phylogeny in models without mutation. Evolution 52:669-77
103. Olmstead RG. 1995. Species concepts and plesiomorphic species. Syst. Bot. 20: 623-30
104. Omland KE. 1997a. Correlated rates of molecular and morphological evolution. Evolution 5:1381 -93
105. Omland KE. 1997b. Examining two standard assumptions of ancestral reconstructions: repeated loss of dichromatism in dabbling ducks (Anatini). Evolution 5:1636-46
106. Pagel MD. 1994. Detecting correlated evolution on phylogenies: a general method for the comparative analysis of discrete characters. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 255:37-45
107. Pamilo P, Nei M. 1988. Relationships between gene trees and species trees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 5:568-83
108. Patton JL, Smith MF. 1994. Paraphyly, polyphyly, and the nature of species boundaries in pocket gophers (genus Thomomys). Syst. Biol. 43:11-26
109. Pimentel RA, Riggins, R. 1987. The nature of cladistic data, Cladistics 3:201-9
110. Poe S. 1998. Skull characters and the cladistic relationships of the Hispaniolan dwarf tig Anolis. Herpetol. Mon. 12:192-236
111. Poe S, Wiens JJ. 2000. Character selection and the methodology of morphological phylogenetics. In Phylogenetic Analysis of Morphological Data, ed. JJ Wens, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press In press
112. 109a. Pollock DD, Bergman A, Feldraan MW, Goldstein DB. 1998. Microsatellite behavior with range constraints: parameter estimation and improved distances for use in phylogenetic reconstruction. Theor Popul. Biol. 53:256-71
113. Porter AH. 1990. Testing nominal species boundaries using gene flow statistics: the taxonomy of two hybridizing admiral butterflies (Limenitis: Nymphalidae). Syst. Zool. 39:148-61
114. Prober S, Bell JC, Moran G. 1990 A phylogenetic and allozyme approach to understanding rarity in the "green ash" eucalypts (Myrtaceae). Plant Syst. Evol. 172:99-118
115. Rannala B. 1995. Polymorphic characters and phylogenetic analysis: a statistical perspective. Syst. Biol. 44:421-29
116. Reeder TW, Wiens JJ. 1996. Evolution of the lizard family Phrynosomatidae as inferred from diverse types of data. Herpetol. Mon. 10:43-84
117. Reynolds J, Weir BS, Cockernam CC. 1983. Estimation of coancestry coefficient: basis for a short-term genetic distance. Genetics 105:767-79
118. Rogers JS. 1986. Deriving phylogenetic trees from allele frequencies: a comparison of nine genetic distances. Syst. Zool. 35:297-310
119. Rohlf FJ, Wooten MC. 1988. Evaluation of the restricted maximum-likelihood method for estimating phylogenetic trees using simulated allele-frequency data. Evolution 42:581-95
120. Saitou N, Nei M. 1987. The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 4:406-25
121. Schluter D, Price T, Mooers AØ, Ludwig D. 1997. Likelihood of ancestor states in adaptive radiation. Evolution 51:1699-1711
122. Schultz TR, Crocroft RB, Churchill GA. 1996. The reconstruction of ancestral character states. Evolution 50:504-11
123. Shaffer HB, Clark JM, Kraus F. 1991. When molecules and morphology clash: a phylogenetic analysis of the North American ambystomatid salamanders (Caudata: Ambystomatidae). Syst. Zool. 40:284-303
124. Siddall ME. 1998. Success of parsimony in the four-taxon case: long-branch repulsion by likelihood in the Farris Zone. Cladistics 14:209-220
125. Siddall ME, Kluge AG. 1997. Probabilism and phylogenetic inference. Cladistics 13:313-36
126. Simpson GG. 1961. Principles of Animal Taxonomy. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
127. Sites JW Jr, Crandall KA. 1997. Testing species boundaries in biodiversity studies. Conserv. Biol. 11:1289-197
128. Slatkin M, Barton NH. 1989. A comparison of three indirect methods for estimating average levels of gene flow. Evolution 43:1349-68
129. Slatkin M, Maddison WP. 1989. A cladistic measure of gene flow inferred from the phylogenies of alleles. Genetics 123:603-13
130. Smouse PE, Dowling TE, Tworek JA, Hoeh WR, Brown WM. 1991. Effects of intraspecific variation on phylogenetic inference: a likelihood analysis of mtDNA restriction site data in cyprinid fishes. Syst. Zool. 40:393-409
131. Strait D, Moniz M, Strait P. 1996. Finite mixture coding: a new approach to coding continuous characters. Syst. Biol. 45:67-78
132. Swofford DL, Berlocher SH. 1987. Inferring evolutionary trees from gene frequency data under the principle of maximum parsimony. Syst. Zool. 36:293-325
133. Swofford DL, Olsen GJ, Waddell PJ, Hillis DM. 1996. Phylogeny reconstruction. In Molecular Systematics, ed. DM Hillis, C Moritz, B Mable, pp. 407-514. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer. 2nd ed.
134. Takahata N. 1989. Gene genealogy in three related populations: consistency probability between gene and population trees. Genetics 122:957-66
135. 131a. Takezaki N, Nei M. 1996. Genetic distances and reconstruction of phylogenetic trees from microsatellite data. Genetics 144:389-99
136. Templeton AR, Crandall KA, Sing CF. 1992. A cladistic analysis of phenotypic associations with haplotypes inferred from restriction endonuclease mapping and DNA sequence data. III. Cladogram estimation. Genetics 132:619-33
137. Thiele K. 1993. The holy grail of the perfect character: the cladistic treatment of morphometric data. Cladistics 9:275-304
138. Vrana P, Wheeler W. 1992. Individual organisms as terminal entities: laying the species problem to rest. Cladistics 8:67-72
139. Wake DB, Schneider CJ. 1998. Taxonomy of the plethodontid salamander genus Ensatina. Herpetologica 54:279-98
140. Wiens JJ. 1993. Phylogenetic systematics of the tree lizards (genus Urosaurus). Herpetologica 44:399-420
141. Wiens JJ. 1995. Polymorphic characters in phylogenetic systematics. Syst. Biol. 44:482-500
142. Wiens JJ. 1998. Testing phylogenetic methods with tree congruence: phylogenetic analysis of polymorphic morphological characters in phrynosomatid lizards. Syst. Biol. 47:411-28
143. Wiens JJ. Reconstructing phylogenies from allozyme data: comparing method performance with congruence. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. Submitted
144. Wiens JJ, 2000. Coding morphological variation for phylogenetic analysis: analyzing, polymorphism and interspecific variation in higher taxa. In Phylogenetic Analysis of Morphological Data, ed. JJ Wiens. Washington, DC: Smithsonian. In press
145. Wiens JJ, ReederTW. 1997. Phylogeny of the spiny lizards (Sceloporus) based on molecular and morphological evidence. Herpetol. Mon. 11:1-101
146. Wiens JJ, Servedio MR. 1997. Accuracy of phylogenetic analysis including and excluding polymorphic characters. Syst. Biol. 46:332-45
147. Wiens JJ, Servedio MR. 1998. Phylogenetic analysis and intraspecific variation: performance of parsimony, distance, and likelihood methods. Syst. Biol. 47:228-53
148. Wiens JJ, Servedio MR. Species delimitation in systematics: inferring "fixed" diagnostic differences between species. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. Submitted
149. Wiens JJ, Reeder TW, Nieto A. 1999. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution of sexual dichromatism among populations of the Yarrow's Spiny Lizard (Sceloporus jarrovii). Evolution. In press
150. Wiley EO. 1978. The evolutionary species concept reconsidered. Syst. Zool. 27:17-26
151. Wright S. 1931. Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics 16:97-159
152. Wright S. 1978. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations. Vol. IV. Variation within and among Natural Populations. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
153. Wu C-I. 1991. Inferences of species phylogeny in relation to segregation of ancient polymorphisms. Genetics 127:429-35
154. Yang Z. 1996. Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony and likelihood methods. J. Mol. Evol. 42:294-307