The M cell: Its contribution to the ECG and to normal and abnormal electrical function of the heart

Journal of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology

Volumn 10, Issue 8, 1999, Pages 1124-1152

  Antzelevitch, Charles ^a,c   Shimizu, Wataru ^a   Yan, Gan Xin ^a   Sicouri, Serge ^a   Weissenburger, Jacques ^b   Nesterenko, Vladislav V ^a   Burashnikov, Alexander ^a   Diego, Jose Di ^a   Saffitz, Jeffrey ^c   Thomas, George P ^a  

^a MASONIC MEDICAL RESEARCH LABORATORY   (United States)

^b Faculté de Médecine   (France)

^c WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Arrhythmia; Early afterdepolarization; Electrocardiography; Heterogeneity; Long QT syndrome; T wave

Indexed keywords

CHLORALOSE; PENTOBARBITAL; QUINIDINE;

ANESTHESIA; ELECTROCARDIOGRAM; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; HEART MUSCLE CELL; HEART MUSCLE POTENTIAL; HEART REPOLARIZATION; HUMAN; LONG QT SYNDROME; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; T WAVE; TORSADE DES POINTES;

EID: 0032871348     PISSN: 10453873     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-8167.1999.tb00287.x     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. 1. Sicouri S, Antzelevitch C: A subpopulation of cells with unique electrophysiological properties in the deep subepicardium of the canine ventricle: The M cell. Circ Res 1991;68:1729-1741.
2. 2. Anyukhovsky EP, Sosunov EA, Gainullin RZ, et al: The controversial M cell. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1999; (In press).
3. 3. Antzelevitch C, Sicouri S: Clinical relevance of cardiac arrhythmias generated by afterdepolarizations: The role of M cells in the generation of U waves, triggered activity and torsade de pointes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;23:259-277.
4. 4. Antzelevitch C, Sicouri S, Lukas A, et al: Clinical implications of electrical heterogeneity in the heart: The electrophysiology and pharmacology of epicardial, M and endocardial cells. In Podrid PJ, Kowey PR, eds: Cardiac Arrhythmia: Mechanism, Diagnosis and Management. William & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1995, pp. 88-107.
5. 5. Antzelevitch C, Sicouri S, Lukas A, et al: Regional differences in the electrophysiology of ventricular cells: Physiological and clinical implications. In Zipes DP, Jalife J, eds: Cardiac Electrophysiology: From Cell to Bedside. WB Saundcrs, Philadelphia, 1995, pp. 228-245.
6. 6. Antzelevitch C: The M cell (invited editorial comment). J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 1997;2:73-76.
7. 7. Antzelevitch C, Yan GX, Shimizu W, et al: Electrical heterogeneity, the ECG, and cardiac arrhythmias. In Zipes DP, Jalife J, eds: Cardiac Electrophysiology: From Cell to Bedside. WB Saunders Co., Philadelphia, 1999 (In press).
8. 8. Liu DW, Gintant GA, Antzelevitch C: Ionic bases for electrophysiological distinctions among epicardial, midmyocardial, and endocardial myocytes from the free wall of the canine left ventricle. Circ Res 1993; 72:671-687.
9. 9. Sicouri S, Antzelevitch C: Drug-induced afterdepolarizations and triggered activity occur in a discrete subpopulation of ventricular muscle cell (M cells) in the canine heart: Quinidine and digitalis. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1993;4:48-58.
10. 10. Sicouri S, Fish J, Antzelevitch C: Distribution of M cells in the canine ventricle. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1994;5:824-837.
11. 11. Sicouri S, Antzelevitch C: Electrophysiologic characteristics of M cells in the canine left ventricular free wall. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1995;6:591-603.
12. 12. Drouin E, Charpentier F, Gauthier C, et al: Electrophysiological characteristics of cells spanning the left ventricular wall of human heart: Evidence for the presence of M cells. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:185-192.
13. Ks contributes to the longer action potential of the M cell. Circ Res 1995;76:351-365.
14. 14. Weissenburger J, Nesterenko VV, Antzelevitch C: Intramural monophasic action potentials (MAP) display steeper APD-rate relations and higher sensitivity to Class III agents than epicardial and endocardial MAPs: Characteristics of the M cell in vivo. (Abstract) Circulation 1995;92:1-300.
15. 15. Sicouri S, Quist M, Antzelevitch C: Evidence for the presence of M cells in the guinea pig ventricle. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1996;7:503-511.
16. 16. Li GR, Feng J, Carrier M, et al: Transmural electrophysiologic heterogeneity in the human ventricle. (Abstract) Circulation 1995;92:1-158.
17. 17. Anyukhovsky EP, Sosunov EA, Rosen MR: Regional differences in electrophysiologic properties of epicardium, midmyocardium and endocardium: In vitro and in vivo correlations. Circulation 1996;94:1981-1988.
18. 18. Rodruguez-Sinovas A, Cinca J, Tapias A, et al: Lack of evidence of M-cells in porcine left ventricular myocardium. Cardiovasc Res 1997;33:307-313.
19. 19. Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C: Sodium channel block with mexiletine is effective in reducing dispersion of repolarization and preventing torsade de pointes in LQT2 and LQT3 models of the long-QT syndrome. Circulation 1997;96:2038-2047.
20. 20. El-Sherif N, Caref EB, Yin H, et al: The electrophysiological mechanism of ventricular arrhythmias in the long QT syndrome: Tridimensional mapping of activation and recovery patterns. Circ Res 1996;79:474-492.
21. + -channel blocking agents on subendocardium and mid-wall slices of human, rabbit, and guinea pig myocardium. (Abstract) Pflugers Arch 1996;431:R130.
22. 22. Burashnikov A, Antzelevitch C: Acceleration-induced action potential prolongation and early afterdepolarizations. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1998;9:934-948.
23. 23. Shimizu W, McMahon B, Antzelevitch C: Sodium pentobarbital reduces transmural dipsersion of repolarization and prevents torsade de pointes in models of acquired and congenital long QT syndromes. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1999; (In press).
24. 24. Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C: Cellular basis for the electrocardiographic features of the LQT1 form of the long QT syndrome: Effects of β-adrenergic agonists, antagonists and sodium channel blockers on transmural dispersion of repolarization and torsade de pointes. Circulation 1998;98:2314-2322.
25. 25. Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C: Cellular and ionic basis for T wave alternans under long QT conditions. Circulation 1999;99:1499-1507.
26. 26. Yan GX, Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C: Characteristics and distribution of M cells in arterially-perfused canine left ventricular wedge preparations. Circulation 1998;98:1921-1927.
27. 27. Yan GX, Antzelevitch C: Cellular basis tor the normal T wave and the electrocardiographic manifestations of the long QT syndrome. Circulation 1998;98:1928-1936.
28. 28. Balati B, Varro A, Papp JG: Comparison of the cellular electrophysiological characteristics of canine left ventricular epicardium, M cells, endocardium and Purkinje fibres (in process citation). Acta Physiol Scand 1998;164:181-190.
29. 29. Sicouri S, Moro S, Elizari MV: d-Sotalol induces marked action potential prolongation and early afterdepolarizations in M but not epicardial or endocardial cells of the canine ventricle. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 1997;2:27-38.
30. 30. Litovsky SH, Antzelevitch C: Transient outward current prominent in canine ventricular epicardium but not endocardium. Circ Res 1988;62:116-126.
31. 31. Furukawa T, Myerburg RJ, Furukawa N, et al: Differences in transient outward currents of feline endocardial and epicardial myocytes. Circ Res 1990;67:1287-1291.
32. 32. Fedida D, Giles WR: Regional variations in action potentials and transient outward current in myocytes isolated from rabbit left ventricle. J Physiol (Lond) 1991;442:191-209.
33. 33. Clark RB, Bouchard RA, Salinas-Stefanon E, et al: Heterogeneity of action potential waveforms and potassium currents in rat ventricle. Cardiovasc Res 1993; 27:1795-1799.
34. 34. Wettwer E, Amos GJ, Posival H, et al: Transient outward current in human ventricular myocytes of subepicardial and subendocardial origin. Circ Res 1994;75:473-482.
35. 35. Nabauer M, Beuckelmann DJ, Uberfuhr P, et al: Regional differences in current density and rate-dependent properties of the transient outward current in subepicardial and subendocardial myocytes of human left ventricle. Circulation 1996;93:168-177.
36. 10 and action potential notch are smaller in left vs. right canine ventricular epicardium. Am J Physiol 1996;271:H548-H561.
37. 37. Yan GX, Antzelevitch C: Cellular basis for the electrocardiographic J wave. Circulation 1996;93: 372-379.
38. 38. Antzelevitch C: The Brugada syndrome. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1998;9:513-516.
39. 39. Gussak I, Antzelevitch C, Bjerregaard P, et al: The Brugada syndrome: Clinical, electrophysiological and genetic aspects. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33:5-15.
40. 40. Yan GX, Antzelevitch C: Cellular basis for the Brugada syndrome. Circulation 1999; (In press).
41. 41. Antzelevitch C, Sicouri S, Litovsky SH, et al: Heterogeneity within the ventricular wall: Electrophysiology and pharmacology of epicardial, endocardial and M cells. Circ Res 1991;69:1427-1449.
42. 42. Eddlestone GT, Zygmunt AC, Antzelevitch C: Larger late sodium current contributes to the longer action potential of the M cell in canine ventricular myocardium. (Abstract) PACE 1996;19:11-569.
43. + current in the ferret heart. Circ Res 1997; 81:128-135.
44. 44. Burashnikov A, Antzelevitch C: α-Agonists produce opposite effect on action potential duration in Purkinje and M cells isolated from the canine left ventricle. (Abstract) PACE 1995;18(Pt II)1935.
45. 45. Burashnikov A, Antzelevitch C: Mechanisms underlying early afterdepolarization activity are different in canine Purkinje and M cell preparations. Role of intracellular calcium. (Abstract) Circulation 1996;94:1-527.
46. 46. Sicouri S, Moro S, Litovsky SH, et al: Chronic amiodarone reduces transmural dispersion of repolarization in the canine heart. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1997;8:1269-1279.
47. 47. Sun ZQ, Eddlestone GT, Antzelevitch C: Ionic mechanisms underlying the effects of sodium pentobarbital to diminish transmural dispersion of repolarization (Abstract). PACE 1997;20(Pt II):1116.
48. + currents in cardiac cells. (Abstract) Biophys J 1994;66:A326.
49. 49. Condor MD, Hess TA, Smith MA, et al: The effects of NE-10064 on cardiac sodium channels. (Abstract) FASEB J 1994;8(Pt 2):A609.
50. 50. Balser JR, Bennett PB, Hondeghem LM, et al: Suppression of time-dependent outward current in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. Actions of quinidine and amiodarone. Circ Res 1991;69:519-529.
51. 51. Antzelevitch C, Davidenko JM, Sicouri S, et al: Electrophysiologic effects of quinidine in canine Purkinje fibers and ventricular myocardium. Slow development of the antiarrhythmic and arrhythmogenic effects of the drug. In Velasco M, Israel A, Romero E, et al, eds: Recent Advances in Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Excerpta Medica, New York, 1989, pp. 259-263.
52. 52. Antzelevitch C, Davidenko JM, Sicouri S, et al: Quinidine-induced early afterdepolarizations and triggered activity. J Electrophysiol 1989;5:323-338.
53. 53. Davidenko JM, Cohen L, Goodrow RJ, et al: Quinidine-induced action potential prolongation, early afterdepolarizations, and triggered activity in canine Purkinje fibers. Effects of stimulation rate, potassium, and magnesium. Circulation 1989;79:674-686.
54. 54. Solberg LE, Singer DH, Ten Eick RE, et al: Glass microelectrode studies on intramural papillary muscle cells. Circ Res 1974;34:783-797.
55. Ks heterogeneity on action potential duration and its rate-dependence: A simulation study. Circulation 1999;99:2466-2474.
56. 56. Streeter DD, Spotnitz HM, Patel DP, et al: Fiber orientation in the canine left ventricle during diastole and systole. Circ Res 1969;24:339-347.
57. 57. Streeter DD: Gross morphology and fiber geometry of the heart. In Berne RM, ed: Handbook of Physiology. Section 2: The Cardiovasvular System. Waverly Press, Inc., Baltimore, 1979, pp. 61-112.
58. 58. Lunkenheimer PP, Redmann K, Scheld H, et al: The heart muscle's putative secondary structure. Functional implications of a band-like anisotropy. Technol Health Care 1997;5:53-64.
59. Ks) contribute to the differences in action potential duration in basal left ventricular myocytes in guinea-pig. Cardiovasc Res 1998;40:322-331.
60. 60. Shipsey SJ, Bryant SM, Hart G: Effects of hypertrophy on regional action potential characteristics in the rat left ventricle: A cellular basis for T-wave inversion? Circulation 1997;96:2061-2068.
61. 61. Lukas A, Antzelevitch C: Differences in the electrophysiological response of canine ventricular epicardium and endocardium to ischemia: Role of the transient outward current. Circulation 1993;88:2903-2915.
62. 62. Antzelevitch C, Sun ZQ, Zhang ZQ, et al: Cellular and ionic mechanisms underlying erythromycin-induced long QT and torsade de pointes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;28:1836-1848.
63. 63. Weissenburger J, Nesterenko VV, Antzelevitch C: M cells contribute to transmural dispersion of repolarization and to the development of torsade de pointes in the canine heart in vivo. (Abstract) PACE 1996;19(Pt II):707.
64. 64. El-Sherif N, Chinushi M, Caref EB, et al: Electrophysiological mechanism of the characteristic electrocardiographic morphology of torsade de pointes tachyarrhythmias in the long-QT syndrome. Detailed analysis of ventricular tridimensional activation patterns. Circulation 1997;96:4392-4399.
65. 65. Plonsey R: Action potential sources and their volume conductor fields. Proc IEEE 1977;65:601-611.
66. 66. Spach MS, Barr RC, Serwer GA, et al: Extracellular potentials related to intracellular action potentials in the dog Purkinje system. Circ Res 1972;30:505-519.
67. 67. Haws CW, Lux RL: Correlation between in vivo transmembrane action potential durations and action-recovery intervals from electrograms. Effects of interventions that alter repolarization time. Circulation 1990;81:281-288.
68. 68. Steinhaus BM: Estimating cardiac transmembrane activation and recovery times from unipolar and bipolar extracellular electrograms: a simulation study. Circ Res 1989;64:449-462.
69. 69. Anyukhovsky EP, Sosunov EA, Feinmark SJ, et al: Effects of quinidine on repolarization in canine epicardium, midmyocardium, and endocardium. II. In vivo study. Circulation 1997;96:4019-4026.
70. 70. Friegang KD, Becker R, Bauer A, et al: Electrophysiological properties of individual muscle layers in the in vivo canine heart. (Abstract) J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;27(Suppl A):124A.
71. 71. Duker GD, Linhardt GS, Rahmberg M: An animal model tor studying class III-induced proarrhythmias in the halothane-anesthetized dog. (Abstract) J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;23:326A.
72. 72. Vos MA, Verduyn SC, Gorgels APM, et al: Reproducible induction of early afterdepolarizations and torsade de pointes arrhythmias by d-sotalol and pacing in dogs with chronic atrioventricular block. Circulation 1995;91:864-872.
73. 73. Weissenburger J, Davy JM, Chezalviel F, et al: Arrhythmogenic activities of antiarrhythmic drugs in conscious hypokalemic dogs with atrioventricular block: Comparison between quinidine, lidocaine, flecainide, propranolol and sotalol. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1991;259:871-883.
74. 74. Weissenburger J, Davy JM, Chezalviel F: Experimental models of torsade de pointes. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 1993;7:29-38.
75. 75. Buchanan LV, Kabell GG, Brunden MN, et al: Comparative assessment of ibutilide, D-sotalol, clofilium, E-4031, and UK-68,798 in a rabbit model of proarrhythmia. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993;22:540-549.
76. 76. Carlsson L, Almgren O, Duker G: Qtu-prolongation and torsades-de-pointes induced by putative class-III antiarrhythmic agents in the rabbit - Etiology and interventions. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1990;16: 276-285.
77. 77. Antzelevitch C: Are M cells present in the ventricular myocardium of the pig? A question of maturity. Cardiovasc Res 1997;36:127-128.
78. 78. Burgess MJ, Green LS, Millar K, et al: The sequence of normal ventricular recovery. Am Heart J 1972;84: 660-669.
79. 79. Chauhan VS, Skanes AC, Tang ASL: Dynamics and dispersion of QT intervals: Q-wave versus non Q-wave myocardial infarction. (Abstract) Circulation 1996;94:1-433.
80. 80. Lubinski A, Lewicka NE, Kempa M, et al: New insight into repolarization abnormalities in patients with congenital long QT syndrome: The increased transmural dispersion of repolarization. PACE 1998;21:172-175.
81. 81. Cohen IS, Giles WR, Noble D: Cellular basis for the T wave of the electrocardiogram. Nature 1976;262: 657-661.
82. 82. Noble D, Cohen IS: The interpretation of the T wave of the electrocardiogram. Cardiovasc Res 1978;12:13-27.
83. 83. Watanabe Y: Purkinje repolarization as a possible cause of the U wave in the electrocardiogram. Circulation 1975;51:1030-1037.
84. 84. Antzelevitch C, Nesterenko VV, Yan GX: The role of M cells in acquired long QT syndrome, U waves and torsade de pointes. J Electrocardiol 1996;28(Suppl): 131-138.
85. 85. Lehmann MH, Suzuki F, Fromm BS, et al: T-wave "humps" as a potential electrocardiographic marker of the long QT syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;24: 746-754.
86. 86. Schwartz PJ: The idiopathic long QT syndrome: Progress and questions. Am Heart J 1985;109:399-411.
87. 87. Moss AJ, Schwartz PJ, Crampton RS, et al: The long QT syndrome: Prospective longitudinal study of 328 families. Circulation 1991;84:1136-1144.
88. 88. Zipes DP: The long QT interval syndrome: A Rosetta stone for sympathetic related ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Circulation 1991;84:1414-1419.
89. 89. Wang Q, Shen J, Splawski I, et al: SCN5A mutations associated with an inherited cardiac arrhythmia, long QT syndrome. Cell 1995;80:805-811.
90. 90. Curran ME, Splawski I, Timothy KW, et al: A molecular basis for cardiac arrhythmia: HERG mutations cause long QT syndrome. Cell 1995;80:795-803.
91. 91. Wang Q, Curran ME, Splawski I, et al: Positional cloning of a novel potassium channel gene: KVLQT1 mutations cause cardiac arrhythmias. Nature Genet 1996;12:17-23.
92. Ks function. Nat Genet 1997;17:338-340.
93. Kr potassium channel. Cell 1995;81:299-307.
94. Ks potassium channel. Nature 1996;384:80-83.
95. Ks cardiac potassium current. Nature 1996;384:78-80.
96. + currents to electrical heterogeneity across the canine ventricular wall under normal and ischemic conditions. In Dhalla NS, Pierce GN, Panagia V, eds: Pathophysiology of Heart Failure. Academic Publishers, Boston, 1996, pp. 440-456.
97. 97. Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C: Characteristics of spontaneous as well as stimulation-induced torsade de pointes in LQT2 and LQT3 models of the long QT syndrome. (Abstract) Circulation 1997;96:1-554.
98. 98. Crampton RS: Preeminence of the left stellate ganglion in the long Q-T syndrome. Circulation 1979;59: 769-778.
99. 99. Timothy KW, Zhang L, Meyer KJ, et al: Differences in precipitators of cardiac arrest and sudden death in chromosome 11 versus 7 genotype long QT syndrome patients. (Abstract) Circulation 1996;94:1-204.
100. 100. Ali RH, Zareba W, Rosero SZ, et al: Adrenergic triggers and non-adrenergic factors associated with cardiac events in long QT syndrome patients. (Abstract) PACE 1997;20:1072.
101. 101. Schwartz PJ, Malteo PS, Moss AJ, et al: Gene-specific influence on the triggers for cardiac arrest in the long QT syndrome. (Abstract) Circulation 1997;96:1-212.
102. 102. Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C: Differential effects of β-adrenergic agonists and antagonists on transmural dispersion of repolarization and torsade de pointes in LQT1, LQT2 and LQT3 models of the long QT syndrome. (Abstract) Circulation 1998;98:1-10.
103. 103. Shimizu W, Ohe T, Kurita T, et al: Early afterdepolarizations induced by isoproterenol in patients with congenital long QT syndrome. Circulation 1991;84: 1915-1923.
104. 104. Shimizu W, Ohe T, Kurita T, et al: Effects of verapamil and propranolol on early afterdepolarizations and ventricular arrhythmias induced by epinephrine in congenital long QT syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:1299-1309.
105. 105. Akar FG, Yan GX, Antzelevitch C, et al: Optical maps reveal reentrant mechanism of Torsade de pointes based on topography and electrophysiology of mid-myocardial cells. (Abstract) Circulation 1997;96:1-355.
106. 106. Sosunov EA, Anyukhovsky EP, Rosen MR: Effects of quinidine on repolarization in canine epicardium, mid-myocardium, and endocardium. I. In vitro study. Circulation 1997;96:4011-4018.
107. 107. Sasyniuk BI, Brunet S: Torsade de pointes induced by quinidine, d-sotalol, and E-4031 in the isolated rabbit heart: Importance of interval dependent dispersion of repolarization. (Abstract) PACE 1995;18:11-904.
108. 108. Wyse KR, Ye VZ, Campbell TJ: Action potential prolongation exhibits simple dose-dependence for sotalol, but reverse dose-dependence for quinidine and disopyramide: Implications for proarrhythmia due to triggered activity. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993;21: 316-322.
109. 109. Weissenburger J, Chezalviel F, Davy JM, et al: "Torsades de pointes" with quinidine and propranolol in conscious dogs with AV-block. (Abstract) J Am Coll Cardiol 1989;13:249A.
110. Na block produces a relatively homogeneous prolongation of repolarization of cells spanning the canine left ventricular wall. (Abstract) PACE 1997;20(Pt II):1216.
111. 111. Coumel P: Early afterdepolarizations and triggered activity in clinical arrhythmias. In Rosen MR, Janse MJ, Wit AL, eds: Cardiac Electrophysiology: A Text Book. Futura Publishing Co., Mount Kisco, NY, 1990, pp. 387-411.
112. 112. Moss AJ: Long QT syndrome. In Podrid PJ, Kowey PR, eds: Cardiac Arrhythmia: Mechanisms, Diagnosis and Management, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1995, pp. 1110-1120.
113. 113. Locati EH, Maison-Blanche P, Dejode P, et al: Spontaneous sequences of onset of torsade de pointes in patients with acquired prolonged repolarization: Quantitative analysis of Holter recordings. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;25:1564-1575.
114. 114. Cobbe SM, Hoffman E, Ritzenhoff A, et al: Action of sotalol on potential reentrant pathways and ventricular tachyarrhythmias in conscious dogs in the late post-myocardial infarction phase. Circulation 1983;68:865-871.
115. 115. Habbab MA, El-Sherif N: TU alternans, long QTU, and torsade de pointes: Clinical and experimental observations. PACE 1992;15:916-931.
116. 116. Wit AL, Rosen MR: Afterdepolarizations and triggered activity: Distinction from automaticity as an arrhythmogenic mechanism. In Fozzard HA, et al, eds: The Heart and Cardiovascular System. Raven Press, New York, 1992, pp. 2113-2164.
117. 117. Bril A, Faivre JF, Forest MC, et al: Electrophysiological effect of BRL-32872, a novel antiarrhythmic agent with potassium and calcium channel blocking properties, in guinea pig cardiac isolated preparations. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1995;273:1264-1272.
118. 118. Marban E, Robinson SW, Wier WG: Mechanism of arrhythmogenic delayed and early afterdepolarizations in ferret muscle. J Clin Invest 1986;78:1185-1192.
119. 119. Boutjdir M, El-Sherif N: Pharmacological evaluation of early afterdepolarisations induced by sea anemone toxin (ATXII) in dog heart. Cardiovasc Res 1991;25: 815-819.
120. 120. Carlsson L, Abrahamsson C, Drews C, et al: Antiarrhythmic effects of potassium channel openers in rhythm abnormalities related to delayed repolarization in the rabbit. Circulation 1992;85:1491-1500.
121. 121. El-Sherif N, Zeiler RH, Craelius W, et al: QTU prolongation and polymorphic ventricular tachyarrhythmias due to bradycardia-dependent early afterdepolarizations. Afterdepolarizations and ventricular arrhythmias. Circ Res 1988;63:286-305.
122. 122. Nattel S, Quantz MA: Pharmacological response of quinidine induced early afterdepolarizations in canine cardiac Purkinje fibers: Insights into underlying ionic mechanisms. Cardiovasc Res 1988;22:808-817.
123. 123. Sicouri S, Antzelevitch C: Afterdepolarizations and triggered activity develop in a select population of cells (M cells) in canine ventricular myocardium: The effects of acetylstrophanthidin and Bay K 8644. PACE 1991;14:1714-1720.
124. 124. Schwartz PJ, Locati EH, Napolitano C, et al: The long QT syndrome. In Zipes DP, Jalife J, eds: Cardiac Electrophysiology; From Cell to Bedside. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1995, pp. 788-811.
125. 125. Surawicz B, Fisch C: Cardiac alternans: Diverse mechanisms and clinical manifestations. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992;20:483-499.
126. 126. Zareba W, Moss AJ, Le Cessie S, et al: T wave alternans in idiopathic long QT syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;23:1541-1546.
127. 127. Chinushi M, Restivo M, Caref EB, et al: The electrophysiological basis of arrhythmogenicity of QT/T alternans in the long QT syndrome: Tridimensional analysis of the kinetics of cardiac repolarization. Circ Res 1998;83:614-628.
128. 128. Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C: Cellular and ionic basis for T wave alternans in the long QT syndrome. Circulation 1999;99:1499-1507.
129. 129. Statters DJ, Malik M, Ward DE, et al: QT dispersion: Problems of methodology and clinical significance. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1994;5:672-685.
130. 130. Surawicz B: Will QT dispersion play a role in clinical decision-making? J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1996; 7:777-784.
131. 131. Han J, Moc GK: Nonuniform recovery of excitability in ventricular muscle. Circ Res 1964;14:44-60.
132. 132. Kuo CS, Munakata K, Reddy CP, et al: Characteristics and possible mechanism of ventricular arrhythmia dependent on the dispersion of action potential durations. Circulation 1983;67:1356-1367.
133. 133. Day CP, McComb JM, Campbell RWF: QT dispersion: An indication of arrhythmia risk in patients with long QT intervals. Br Heart J 1990;63:342-344.
134. 134. Linker NJ, Colonna P, Kekwick CA, et al: Assessment of QT dispersion in symptomatic patients with congenital long QT syndromes. Am J Cardiol 1992;69: 634-638.
135. 135. Priori SG, Napolitano C, Diehl L, et al: Dispersion of the QT interval: A marker of therapeutic efficacy in the idiopathic long QT syndrome. Circulation 1994; 89:1681-1689.
136. 136. Shimizu W, Kamakura S, Ohe T, et al: Diagnostic-value of recovery time measured by body surface mapping in patients with congenital long QT syndrome. Am J Cardiol 1994;74:780-785.
137. 137. Hii JTY, Wyse DG, Gillis AM, et al: Precordial QT interval dispersion as a marker of torsade de pointes. Disparate effects of class Ia antiarrhythmic drugs and amiodarone. Circulation 1992;86:1376-1382.
138. 138. Loo AVD, Arendts W, Hohnloser SH: Variability of QT dispersion measurements in the surface electrocardiogram in patients with acute myocardial infarction and in normal subjects. Am J Cardiol 1994;74:1113-1118.
139. 139. Zareba W, Moss AJ, Cessie SL: Dispersion of ventricular rcpolarization and arrhythmic cardiac death in coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 1994;74:550-553.
140. 140. Perkiomaki JS, Koistinen MJ, Mayry S, et al: Dispersion of QT interval in patients with and without susceptibility to ventricular tachyarrhythmias after previous myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 26:174-179.
141. 141. Glancy JM, Garratt CJ, Woods KL, et al: QT dispersion and mortality after myocardial infarction. Lancet 1995;345:945-948.
142. 142. Leitch J, Basta M, Dobson A: QT dispersion does not predict early ventricular fibrillation after acute myocardial infarction. PACE 1995;18:45-48.
143. 143. Davey PP, Bateman J, Mulligan IP, et al: QT interval dispersion in chronic heart failure and left ventricular hypertrophy: Relation to autonomic nervous system and Holter tape abnormalities. Br Heart J 1994;71: 268-273.
144. 144. Buja G, Miorelli M, Turrini F, et al: Comparison of QT dispersion in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy between patients with and without ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death. Am J Cardiol 1993;72:973-976.
145. 145. Zabel M, Portnoy S, Franz MR: Electrocardiographic indexes of dispersion of ventricular repolarization: An isolated heart validation study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;25:746-752.
146. 146. Franz MR, Bargheer K, Costard-Jackle A, et al: Human ventricular repolarization and T wave genesis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1991;33:369-384.
147. 147. Antzelevitch C, Shimizu W, Yan GX, et al: Cellular basis for QT dispersion. J Electrocardiol 1998; 30(Suppl):168-175.
148. 148. Nesterenko VV, Weissenburger J: Experimental evidence for re-interpretation of basis for the monophasic action potential: A new technique with large amplitude and stable transmural signals. (Abstract) Circulation 1995;92:1-299.
149. 149. Nesterenko VV, Antzelevitch C: Spatial resolution of newly developed MAP recording techniques: Experimental evaluation in highly heterogeneous myocardium in vitro. (Abstract) PACE 1998;21:857.
150. 150. Weissenburger J, Nesterenko VV, Antzelevitch C: Transmural heterogeneity of ventricular repolarization under baseline and long QT conditions in the canine heart in vivo. Torsade de pointes develops with halothane but not pentobarbital anesthesia. Circ Res 1999; (Submitted).
151. 151. Li GR, Feng J, Yue L, et al: Transmural heterogeneity of action potentials and Itol in myocytes isolated from the human right ventricle. Am J Physiol 1998;275: H369-H377.
152. 1). J Am Coll Carcliol 1999;33:327-332.