Alzheimer's disease: Etiologies, pathophysiology, cognitive reserve, and treatment opportunities

Neurology

Volumn 51, Issue 1 SUPPL., 1998, Pages

  Cummings, Jeffrey L ^c   Vinters, Harry V ^b   Cole, Gregory M ^a   Khachaturian, Zaven S ^b  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b I ^*

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ANTIOXIDANT; ESTROGEN DERIVATIVE; NERVE GROWTH FACTOR; NEUROTRANSMITTER;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ARTICLE; AUTOPSY; CHROMOSOME 1; CHROMOSOME 12; CHROMOSOME 14; CHROMOSOME 19; CHROMOSOME 21; CHROMOSOME 6; DRUG RESEARCH; FAMILIAL DISEASE; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLE; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SENILE PLAQUE; TREATMENT PLANNING; VASCULAR AMYLOIDOSIS;

EID: 0031902295     PISSN: 00283878     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1212/wnl.51.1_suppl_1.s2     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. Cummings JL, Khachaturian Z. Alzheimer's disease: definitions and diagnostic criteria. In: Gauthier S, ed. Clinical diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease. London: Martin Dunitz, 1996:3-15.
2. McKhann G, Drachman DD, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price D, Stadlan EM. Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of the Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease. Neurology 1984;34:939-944.
3. Blacker D, Albert MS, Bassett SS, Go RCP, Harrell LE, Folstein MF. Reliability and validity of NINCDS-ADRDA criteria for Alzheimer's disease. The National Institute of Mental Health Genetics Initiative. Arch Neurol 1994;51:1198-1204.
4. Lopez OL, Swihart AA, Becker JT, et al. Reliability of NINCDS-ADRDA clinical criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1990;40:1517-1522.
5. Small GW, Mazziotta JC, Collins MT, et al. Apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and cerebral glucose metabolism in relatives at risk for familial Alzheimer disease. JAMA 1995;273:942-947.
6. Langston JW, Tanner CM. Etiology of Parkinson's disease. In: Koller WC, ed. Handbook of Parkinson's disease. 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1992:369-381.
7. Gomez-Isla T, Hollister R, West H, et al. Neuronal loss correlates with but exceeds neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1997;41:17-24.
8. Terry RD. The pathology of Alzheimer's disease: numbers count [letter]. Ann Neurol 1997;41:7.
9. Dickson DW. The pathogenesis of senile plaques. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1997;56:321-339.
10. Landon M, Kidd M. The structure and protein chemistry of senile plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid. In: Davies DC, ed. Alzheimer's disease: towards an understanding of the aetiology and pathogenesis. London: John Libbey, 1989:65-75.
11. Mandybur TI, Chuirazzi CC. Astrocytes and the plaques of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1990;40:635-639.
12. Morris JC. Relationship of plaques and tangles to Alzheimer's disease phenotype. In: Goate AM, Ashall F, eds. Pathobiology of Alzheimer's disease. New York: Academic Press, 1995:191-223.
13. Mirra SS, Heyman A, McKeel D, et al. The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD). Part II. Standardization of the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1991;41:479-486.
14. National Institute on Aging and Reagan Institute Working Group on Diagnostic Criteria for the Neuropathological Assessment of Alzheimer's Disease. Consensus recommendations for the postmortem diagnosis of Alzheimers disease. Neurobiol Aging 1997;18(Suppl 4):51-52.
15. Aisen PS, Davis KL. Inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease: implications for therapy. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:1105-1113.
16. McGeer PL, Rogers J, McGeer EG. Neuroimmune mechanisms in Alzheimer disease patients. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1994;8:149-158.
17. Terry RD, Masliah E, Hansen LA. Structural basis of the cognitive alterations in Alzheimer disease. In: Terry RD, Katzman R, Bick KL, eds. Alzheimer disease. New York: Raven Press, 1994:179-196.
18. Braak H, Braak E. Pathology of Alzheimer's disease. In: Calne DB, ed. Neurodegenerative diseases. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994:585-613.
19. Mega MS, Cummings JL, Fiorello T, Gornbein J. The spectrum of behavioral changes in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1996;46:130-135.
20. Duong T, De Rosa MJ, Poukens V, Vinters HV, Fisher RS. Neuronal cytoskeletal abnormalities in human cerebral cortical dysplasia. Acta Neuropathol 1994;87:493-503.
21. Crystal H, Dickson D, Fuld P, et al. Clinico-pathologic studies in dementia: nondemented subjects with pathologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1988;38:1682-1687.
22. Schmidt ML, Lee VM-Y, Forman M, Chiu T-S, Trojanowski JQ. Monoclonal antibodies to the 10-kd protein reveal abundant Aβ-negative plaques throughout gray matter of Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 1997;151:69-80.
23. Terry RD, Masliah E, Salmon DP, et al. Physical basis of cognitive alterations in Alzheimer's disease: synapse loss is the major correlate of cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol 1991;30:572-580.
24. Olichney JM, Hansen LA, Hofstetter R, Grundman M, Katzman R, Thai LJ. Cerebral infarction in Alzheimer's disease is associated with severe amyloid angiopathy and hypertension. Arch Neurol 1995;52:702-708.
25. Vinters HV, Wang ZZ, Secor DL. Brain parenchymal and microvascular amyloid in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Pathol 1996;6:179-195.
26. Ellis RJ, Olichney JM, Thal LJ, et al. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease: the CERAD experience, part XV. Neurology 1996;46:1592-1596.
27. Lippa CF, Hamos JE, Smith TW, Pulaski-Salo D, Drachman DA. Vascular amyloid deposition in Alzheimer's disease: neither necessary nor sufficient for the local formation of plaques or tangles. Arch Neurol 1993;50:1088-1092.
28. Bornebroek M, Haan J, Maat-Schieman MLC, van Duinen SG, Roos RAC. Hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis-Dutch type (HCHWA-D): I-A review of clinical, radiologic and genetic aspects. Brain Pathol 1996;6:111-114.
29. Maat-Schieman MLC, van Duinen SG, Bornebroek M, Haan J, Roos RAC. Hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis-Dutch type (HCHWA-D): II-A review of histopathological aspects. Brain Pathol 1996;6:115-120.
30. Vinters HV. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy and Alzheimer's disease: two entities or one? [editorial]. J Neurol Sci 1992; 112:1-3.
31. Xu M, Shibayama H, Kobayashi H, et al. Granulovacuolar degeneration in the hippocampal cortex of aging and demented patients - a quantitative study. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1992;85:1-9.
32. Braak H, Braak E, Grundke-Iqbal I, Iqbal K. Occurrence of neuropil threads in the senile human brain and in Alzheimer's disease: a third location of paired helical filaments outside of neurofibrillary tangles and neuritic plaques. Neurosci Lett 1986;65:351-355.
33. Davies P. Studies on the neurochemistry of central cholinergic systems in Alzheimer's disease. In: Katzman R, Terry RD, Bick KL, eds. Alzheimer's disease: senile dementia and related disorders. New York: Raven Press, 1978:453-459.
34. Hansen LA, DeTeresa R, Davies P, Terry RD. Neocortical morphometry, lesion counts, and choline acetyltransferase levels in the age spectrum of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1988;38:48-54.
35. Wilcock GK, Esiri MM, Bowen DM, Smith CCT. Alzheimer's disease: correlation of cortical choline acetyltransferase activity with the severity of dementia and histological abnormalities. J Neurol Sci 1982;57:407-417.
36. Schliebs R, Rossner S. Distribution of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the CNS. In: Stone TW, ed. CNS neurotransmitters and neuromodulators: acetylcholine. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1995:67-83.
37. Young AB, Penney JB Jr. Neurotransmitter receptors in Alzheimer disease. In: Terry RD, Katzman R, Bick KL, eds. Alzheimer disease. New York: Raven Press, 1994:293-303.
38. Mann DMA, Yates PO. Neurotransmitter deficits in Alzheimer's disease and in other dementing disorders. Hum Neurobiol 1986;5:147-158.
39. Palmer AM, Stratmann GC, Procter AW, Bowen DM. Possible neurotransmitter basis of behavioral changes in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1988;23:616-620.
40. Whitehouse PJ. Neurotransmitter receptor alterations in Alzheimer disease: a review. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1987;1:9-18.
41. Hendriks L, van Broeckhoven C. The ssA 4 precursor protein gene and Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Biochem 1996;237:6-15.
42. Lendon CL, Ashall F, Goate AM. Exploring the etiology of Alzheimer disease using molecular genetics. JAMA 1997;277: 825-836.
43. Bird TD, Levy-Lahad E, Poorkaj P, et al. Wide range in age of onset for chromosome 1-related familial Alzheimer disease. Ann Neurol 1996;40:932-936.
44. Bird TD, Sumi SM, Nemens EJ, et al. Phenotypic heterogeneity in familial Alzheimer's disease: a study of 24 kindreds. Ann Neurol 1989;25:12-25.
45. Wisniewski KE, Wisniewski HM, Wen GY. Occurrence of neuropathological changes and dementia of Alzheimer's disease in Down's syndrome. Ann Neurol 1985;17:278-282.
46. Govoni S, Bergamaschi S, Gasparini L, et al. Fibroblasts of patients affected by Down's syndrome oversecrete amyloid precursor protein and are hyporesponsive to protein kinase C stimulation. Neurology 1996;47:1069-1075.
47. Hardy J. Amyloid, the presenilins and Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci 1997;20:154-159.
48. Mann DMA, Iwatsubo T, Cairns NJ, et al. Amyloid ss protein (Ass) deposition in chromosome 14-linked Alzheimer's disease: predominance of Ass42(43). Ann Neurol 1996;40:149-156.
49. Levy-Lahad E, Wasco W, Poorkaj P, et al. Candidate gene for the chromosome 1 familial Alzheimer's disease locus. Science 1995;269:973-977.
50. Mann DMA, Iwatsubo T, Nochlin D, Sumi SM, Levy-Lahad E, Bird TD. Amyloid (Ass) deposition in chromosome 1-linked Alzheimer's disease: the Volga German families. Ann Neurol 1997;41:52-57.
51. Tsuang D, Kukull W, Sheppard L, et al. Impact of sample selection on ApoE e-4 allele frequency: a comparison of two Alzheimer's disease samples. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996;44:704-707.
52. Corder EH, Saunders AM, Strittmatter WJ, et al. Gene dose of apolipoprotein E Type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families. Science 1993;261:921-923.
53. Gomez-Isla T, West HL, Rebeck GW, et al. Clinical and pathological correlates of apolipoprotein E e-4 in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1996;39:62-70.
54. Olichney JM, Hansen LA, Galasko D, et al. The apolipoprotein E e4 allele is associated with increased neuritic plaques and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in Alzheimer's disease and Lewy body variant. Neurology 1996;47:190-196.
55. Roses AD. Alzheimer's disease as a model of molecular gerontology. J NIH Res 1995;7:51-57.
56. Kang DE, Saitoh T, Chen X, et al. Genetic association of the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein gene (LRP), an apolipoprotein E receptor, with late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1997;49:56-61.
57. Payami H, Schellenberg GD, Zareparsi S, et al. Evidence for association of HLA-A2 allele with onset age of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1997;49:512-518.
58. Montoya SE, Aston CE, Dekosky SI, et al. Bleomycin hydrolase is associated with risk of sporatic Alzheimer's disease. Nat Genet 1998;18:211-217.
59. Breitner JCS, Silverman JM, Mohs RC, Davis KL. Familial aggregation in Alzheimer's disease: comparison of risk among relatives of early- and late-onset cases, and among male and female relatives in successive generations. Neurology 1988;38:207-212.
60. Mohs RC, Breitner JCS, Silverman JM, Davis KL. Alzheimer's disease: morbid risk among first-degree relative approximates 50% by 90 years of age. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:405-408.
61. Evans DA, Funkenstein HH, Albert MS, et al. Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease in a community population of older persons: higher than previously reported. JAMA 1989;262:2551-2556.
62. Jorm AF, Korten AE, Henderson AS. The prevalence of dementia: a quantitative integration of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1987;76:465-479.
63. Paykel ES, Brayne C, Huppert FA, et al. Incidence of dementia in a population older than 75 years in the United Kingdom. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994;51:325-332.
64. Barclay L, Wolfson L. Normal aging: pathophysiologic and clinical changes. In: Barclay L, ed. Clinical geriatric neurology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1993:13-20.
65. Powers RE. Neurobiology of Aging. In: Coffey CE, Cummings JL, eds. The American Psychiatric Press textbook of geriatric neuropsychiatry. Washington: American Psychiatric Press, 1994:35-69.
66. Rocca WA, Amaducci LA, Schoenberg BS. Epidemiology of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1986; 19:415-424.
67. Rocca WA, Hofman A, Brayne C, et al. Frequency and distribution of Alzheimer's disease in Europe: a collaborative study of 1980-1990 prevalence findings. Ann Neurol 1991; 30:381-390.
68. Schoenberg BS, Anderson DW, Haerer AF. Severe dementia: prevalence and clinical features in a biracial US population. Arch Neurol 1985;42:740-743.
69. French LR, Schuman LM, Mortimer JA, Hutton JT, Boatman RA, Christians B. A case-control study of dementia of the Alzheimer type. Am J Epidemiol 1985;121:414-421.
70. Heyman A, Wilkinson WE, Stafford JA, Helms MJ, Sigmon AH, Weinberg T. Alzheimer's disease: a study of epidemiological aspects. Ann Neurol 1984;15:335-341.
71. Mayeux R, Ottman R, Tang MX, et al. Genetic susceptibility and head injury as risk factors for Alzheimer's disease among community-dwelling elderly persons and their first-degree relatives. Ann Neurol 1993;33:494-501.
72. Broe GA, Henderson AS, Creasey H, et al. A case-control study of Alzheimer's disease in Australia. Neurology 1990;40: 1698-1707.
73. Chandra V, Kokmen E, Schoenberg BS, Beard CM. Head trauma with loss of consciousness as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1989;39:1576-1578.
74. Li G, Shen YC, Li YT, Chen CH, Zhau YW, Silverman JM. A case-control study of Alzheimer's disease in China. Neurology 1992;42:1481-1488.
75. Jordan BD, Kanik AB, Horwich MS, et al. Apolipoprotein E e-4 and fatal cerebral amyloid angiopathy associated with dementia pugilistica. Ann Neurol 1995;38:698-699.
76. Mayeux R, Ottman R, Maestre G, et al. Synergistic effects of traumatic head injury and apolipoprotein-e4 in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1995;45:555-557.
77. Roberts GW, Gentleman SM, Lynch A, Murray L, Landon M, Graham DI. ss Amyloid protein deposition in the brain after severe head injury: implications for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994;57: 419-425.
78. Cassidy JW. Neuroanatomic and functional bases of behavior. In: Silver JM, Yudofsky SC, Hales RE, eds. Neuropsychiatry of traumatic brain injury. Washington: American Psychiatric Press, 1994:43-79.
79. Graves AB, Mortimer JA, Larson EB, Wenzlow A, Bowen JD, McCormick WC. Head circumference as a measure of cognitive reserve: association with severity of impairment in Alzheimer's disease. Br J Psychiatry 1996;169:86-92.
80. Mori E, Hirono N, Yamashita H, et al. Premorbid brain size as a determinant of reserve capacity against intellectual decline in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:18-24.
81. Schofield PW, Logroscino G, Andrews HF, Albert S, Stern Y. An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging and dementia. Neurology 1997;49:30-37.
82. Schofield PW, Mosesson RE, Stern Y, Mayeux R. The age at onset of Alzheimer's disease and an intracranial area measurement: a relationship. Arch Neurol 1995;52:95-98.
83. Mortimer JA. Is Alzheimer's disease a lifelong illness? Risk factors for pathological and clinical disease. In: Heston LL, ed. Progress in Alzheimer's disease and similar conditions. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1997:9-20.
84. Snowdon DA, Kemper SJ, Mortimer JA, Greiner LH, Wekstein DR, Markesbery WR. Linguistic ability in early life and cognitive function and Alzheimer's disease in late life: findings from the Nun Study. JAMA 1996;275:528-532.
85. Deary IJ, Caryl PG. Neuroscience and human intelligence differences. Trends Neurosci 1997;20:365-371.
86. Duara R, Barker WW, Lopez-Alberola R, et al. Alzheimer's disease: interaction of apolipoprotein E genotype, family history of dementia, gender, education, ethnicity, and age of onset. Neurology 1996;46:1575-1579.
87. Strittmatter WJ, Roses AD. Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:4725-4727.
88. Miyata M, Smith JD. Apolipoprotein E allele-specific antioxidant activity and effects on cytotoxicity by oxidative insults and beta-amyloid peptides. Nature Genet 1996;14:55-61.
89. LaDu MJ, Lukens JR, Reardon CA, Getz GS. Association of human, rat, and rabbit apolipoprotein E with beta-amyloid. J Neurosci Res 1997;49:9-18.
90. Yang DS, Smith JD, Zhou Z, Gandy SE, Martins RN. Characterization of the binding of amyloid-beta peptide to cell culture-derived native apolipoprotein E2, E3, and E4 isoforms and to isoforms from human plasma. J Neurochem 1997;68:721-725.
91. Wilson C, Mau T, Weisgraber KH, Wardell MR, Mahley RW, Agard DA. Salt bridge relay triggers defective LDL receptor binging by a mutant apolipoprotein. Structure 1997;2:713-718.
92. Breitner JCS, Gau BA, Welsh KA, et al. Inverse association of anti-inflammatory treatments and Alzheimer's disease: initial results of a co-twin study. Neurology 1994;44:227-232.
93. Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease in Canada. Neurology 1994;44:2073-2080.
94. Lucca U, Tettamanti M, Forloni G, Spagnoli A. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug use in Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 1994;36:850-853.
95. McGeer PL, Schulzer M, McGeer EG. Arthritis and antiinflammatory agents as possible protective factors for Alzheimer's disease: a review of 17 epidemiologic studies. Neurology 1996;47:425-432.
96. Stewart WF, Kawas C, Corrada M, Metter EJ. Risk of Alzheimer's disease and duration of NSAID use. Neurology 1997;48:626-632.
97. Rich JB, Rasmusson DX, Folstein MF, Carson KA, Kawas C, Brandt J. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1995;45:51-55.
98. Jouzeau JY, Terlain B, Abid A, Nedelec E, Netter P. Cyclooxygenase isoenzymes. How recent findings affect thinking about nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Drugs 1997;53: 563-582.
99. Chang JW, Coleman PD, O'Banion MK. Prostaglandin G/H synthase-2 (cyclooxygenase-2) mRNA expression is decreased in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 1992;17:801-808.
100. Breitner JCS, Welsh KA, Helms MJ, et al. Delayed onset of Alzheimer's disease with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory and histamine H2 blocking drugs. Neurobiol Aging 1995;16: 523-530.
101. Paganini A, Henderson VW. Estrogen deficiency and risk of Alzheimer's disease in women. Am J Epidemiol 1994;140: 256-261.
102. Ohkura T, Isse K, Akazawa K, Hamamoto M, Yaoi Y, Hagino N. Evaluation of estrogen treatment in female patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Endocrine J 1994;41:361-371.
103. Birge SJ. Is there a role for estrogen replacement therapy in the prevention and treatment of dementia? J Am Geriatr Soc 1996;44:865-870.
104. Luine VN. Estradiol increases choline acetyltransferase activity in specific basal forebrain nuclei and projection areas of female rats. Exp Neurol 1985;89:484-490.
105. Callahan CM, Hall KS, Hui SL, Musick BS, Unverzagt FW, Hendrie HC. Relationship of age, education, and occupation with dementia among a community-based sample of African Americans. Arch Neurol 1996;53:134-140.
106. Hill LR, Klauber MR, Salmon DP, et al. Functional status, education, and the diagnosis of dementia in the Shanghai survey. Neurology 1993;43:138-145.
107. Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, Tang MX, Wilder D, Mayeux R. Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1994;271:1004-1010.
108. White L, Katzman R, Losonczy K, et al. Association of education with incidence of cognitive impairment in three established populations for epidemiologic studies of the elderly. J Clin Epidemiol 1994;47:363-374.
109. Zhang M, Katzman R, Salmon D, et al. The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in Shanghai, China: impact of age, gender, and education. Ann Neurol 1990;27:428-437.
110. Fabrigoule C, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, Zarrouk M, Commenges D, Barberger-Gateau P. Social and leisure activities and risk of dementia: a prospective longitudinal study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995;43:485-490.
111. Katzman R. Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993;43:13-20.
112. Cummings JL, Mega M. Alzheimer's disease: etiologies and pathogenesis. Consult Pharmacist 1996;11(suppl E):8-15.
113. Hardy JA, Higgins GA. Alzheimer's disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis. Science 1992;256:184-185.
114. Selkoe DJ. Physiological production of the ss-amyloid protein and the mechanism of Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurol Sci 1993;16:403-409.
115. Selkoe DJ. Alzheimer's disease: genotypes, phenotype, and treatments. Science 1997;275:630-631.
116. Barrow CJ, Zagorski MG. Solution structures of ss peptide and its constituent fragments: relation to amyloid deposition. Science 1991;253:179-182.
117. Younkin SG. Evidence that Ass42 is the real culprit in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1995;37:287-288.
118. Behl C, Davis JB, Cole GM, Schubert D. Vitamin E protects nerve cells from amyloid ss-protein toxicity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1992;186:944-950.
119. Behl C, Davis JB, Lesley R, Schubert D. Hydrogen peroxide mediates amyloid beta protein toxicity. Cell 1994;77:817-827.
120. Coyle JT, Puttfarcken P. Oxidative stress, glutamate, and neurodegenerative disorders. Science 1993;262:689-695.
121. Mecocci P, MacGarvey U, Beal MF. Oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA is increased in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1994;36:747-751.
122. Beal MF. Does impairment of energy metabolism result in excitotoxic neuronal death in neurodegenerative illnesses? Ann Neurol 1992;31:119-130.
123. Beal MF. Aging, energy, and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Ann Neurol 1995;38:357-366.
124. Meda L, Cassatella MA, Szendrei GI, et al. Activation of microglial cells by beta-amyloid protein and interferon-gamma. Nature 1995;374:647-650.
125. Khachaturian ZS. Calcium hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease and brain aging. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994;747:1-11.
126. 2+ homeostasis in Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci 1993;16:409-414.
127. Bennett DA, Cochran EJ, Saper CB, Leverenz JB, Gilley DW, Wilson RS. Pathological changes in frontal cortex from biopsy to autopsy in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 1993;14:589-596.
128. Mann DM, Marcyniuk B, Yates PO, Neary D, Snowden JS. The progression of the pathological changes of Alzheimer's disease in frontal and temporal neocortex examined both at biopsy and at autopsy. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1988;4: 177-195.
129. Cummings JL, Benson DF. Dementia: a clinical approach. 2nd ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992.
130. Chase TN, Fedio P, Foster NL, Brooks R, Di Chiro G, Mansi L. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale performance: cortical localization by fluorodeoxyglucose F18-positron emission tomography. Arch Neurol 1984;41:1244-1247.
131. Haxby JV, Duara R, Grady CL, Cutler NR, Rapoport SI. Relations between neuropsychological and cerebral metabolic asymmetries in early Alzheimer's disease. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1985;5:193-200.
132. Sultzer DL. Behavioral syndromes in dementia: neuroimaging insights. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 1996;1:261-271.
133. Mortel KF, Meyer JS. Lack of postmenopausal estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of dementia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995;7:334-337.
134. Anderson K, Launer LJ, Ott A, Hoes AW, Breteler MMB, Hofman A. Do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease the risk for Alzheimer's disease? The Rotterdam Study. Neurology 1995;45:1441-1445.
135. Stern RA, Silva SG, Chaisson N, Evans DL. Influence of cognitive reserve on neuropsychological functioning in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection. Arch Neurol 1996;53:148-153.
136. Gorelick PB, Brody J, Cohen D, et al. Risk factors for dementia associated with multiple cerebral infarcts: a case-control analysis in predominantly African-American hospital-based patients. Arch Neurol 1993;50:714-720.
137. Reyes-Ortiz CA. Delirium, dementia and brain reserve [letter]. J Am Geriatr Soc 1997;45:778-783.
138. Katzman R, Terry R, De Teresa R, et al. Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques. Ann Neurol 1988;23:138-144.
139. Alexander GE, Furey ML, Grady CL, et al. Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:165-172.
140. Stern Y, Tang MX, Denaro J, Mayeux R. Increased risk of mortality in Alzheimer's disease patients with more advanced educational and occupational attainment. Ann Neurol 1995;37:590-595.
141. Teri L, McCurry SM, Edland SD, Kukull WA, Larson EB. Cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease: a longitudinal investigation of risk factors for accelerated decline. J Gerontol [A] 1995;50A:M49-55.
142. Davis KL, Thai LJ, Gamzu ER, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study of tacrine for Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1253-1259.
143. Farlow M, Gracon SI, Hershey LA, Lewis KW, Sadowsky CH, Dolan-Ureno J, for the Tacrine Study Group. A controlled trial of tacrine in Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1992;68: 2523-2529.
144. Knapp MJ, Knopman DS, Solomon PR, Pendlebury WW, Davis CS, Gracon SI, for the Tacrine Study Group. A 30-week randomized controlled trial of high-dose tacrine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1994;271:985-991.
145. Rogers SL, Friedhoff LT, and the Donepezil Study Group. The efficacy and safety of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease: results of a US multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Adapted from Dementia 1996;7:293-303.
146. Tariot PN, Schneider L. Contemporary treatment approaches to Alzheimer's disease. Consult Pharmacist 1996; 11(suppl E):16-24.
147. Bodick NC, Often WW, Levey AI, et al. Effects of xanomeline, a selective muscarinic receptor agonist, on cognitive function and behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 1997;54:465-473.
148. Cummings JL, Kaufer D. Neuropsychiatric aspects of Alzheimer's disease: the cholinergic hypothesis revisited. Neurology 1996;47:876-883.
149. Wallace WC, Bragin V, Robakis NK, et al. Increased biosynthesis of Alzheimer amyloid precursor protein in the cerebral cortex of rats with lesions of the nucleus basalis of Meynert. Mol Brain Res 1991;10:173-178.
150. Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas RG, et al. A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1216-1222.
151. Whyte S, Beyreuther K, Masters CL. Rational therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease. In: Calne DB, ed. Neurodegenerative diseases. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994: 647-664.
152. Tollefson GD. Short-term effects of the calcium channel blocker nimodipine (Bay-e-9736) in the management of primary degenerative dementia. Biol Psychiatry 1990;27:1133-1142.
153. Koliatsos VE, Clatterbuck RE, Nauta HJW, et al. Human nerve growth factor prevents degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in primates. Ann Neurol 1991;30:831-840.
154. Rosenberg MB, Friedmann T, Robertson RC, et al. Grafting genetically modified cells to the damaged brain: restorative effects of NGF expression. Science 1988;242:1575-1578.
155. Cummings JL. Neuropsychiatric assessment and intervention in Alzheimer's disease. Int Psychogeriatr 1996;8(suppl 1):25-30.
156. Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. 24th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1965.
157. Arriagada PV, Marzloff K, Hyman BT. Distribution of Alzheimer-type pathologic changes in nondemented elderly individuals matches the pattern in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1992;42:1681-1688.
158. Giannakopoulos P, Hof PR, Giannakopoulos A-S, Herrmann FR, Michel J-P, Bouras C. Regional distribution of neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in the cerebral cortex of very old patients. Arch Neurol 1995;52:1150-1159.
159. Morris JC, Storandt M, McKeel DW Jr, et al. Cerebral amyloid deposition and diffuse plaques in "normal" aging: evidence for presymptomatic and very mild Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1996;46:707-719.
160. Ulrich J. Alzheimer changes in nondemented patients younger than sixty-five: possible early stages of Alzheimer's disease and senile dementia of Alzheimer type. Ann Neurol 1985;17:273-277.
161. Linn RT, Wolf PA, Bachman DL, et al. The 'preclinical phase' of probable Alzheimer's disease: a 13-year prospective study of the Framingham Cohort. Arch Neurol 1995;2:485-490.
162. Masur DM, Sliwinski M, Lipton RB, Blau AD, Crystal HA. Neuropsychological prediction of dementia and the absence of dementia in healthy elderly persons. Neurology 1994;44: 1427-1432.