Total Joint Replacement

Core Knowledge in Orthopaedics: Adult Reconstruction and Arthroplasty

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-40

  Clarke, Ian C ^a   Donaldson, Thomas ^a   Jobe, Christopher ^a   Ebramzadeh, Edward ^b,c   Sangiorgio, Sophia N ^c  

^a LOMA LINDA UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b JOINT REPLACEMENT INSTITUTE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85170151548     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-03370-1.50006-X     Document Type: Chapter

References (163)

1. HC Amstutz, P Campbell, N Kossovsky and IC Clarke (1992) Mechanism and clinical significance of wear debris-induced osteolysis. Clin Orthop Relat Res 276 7-18.
2. HC Amstutz, P Campbell, H McKellop, et al. (1996) Metal on metal total hip replacement workshop consensus document. Clin Orthop Relat Res 329(Suppl), S297-S303.
3. HC Amstutz and IC Clarke (1991) Evolution of hip arthroplasty. HC Amstutz (Eds) Hip Arthroplasty vol. 1-14 New York: Churchill Livingstone
4. HL Anissian, A Stark, V Good, et al. (2001) The wear pattern in metal-on-metal hip prostheses. J Biomed Mater Res 58 673-678.
5. TW Bauer, J Ming, JA D'Antonio and LG Morawa (1996) Abrasive three-body wear of polyethylene caused by broken multifilament cables of a total hip prosthesis: A report of these cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am 78 1244-1247.
6. P Bizot, L Banallec, L Sedel and R Nizard (2000) Alumina-on-alumina total hip prostheses in patients 40 years of age or younger. Clin Orthop Relat Res 379 68-76.
7. M Boehler, K Knahr, H Plenk Jr, et al. (1994) Long-term results of uncemented alumina acetabular implants. J Bone Joint Surg Br 76 53-59.
8. I Bos and G Willmann (2001) Morphologic characteristics of periprosthetic tissues from hip prostheses with ceramic-ceramic couples: A comparative histologic investigation of 18 revision and 30 autopsy cases. Acta Orthop Scand 72 335-342.
9. P Boutin (1972) [Total arthroplasty of the hip by fretted aluminum prosthesis: Experimental study and first clinical applications]. Rev Chir Orthop Reparatrice Appar Mot 58 229-246.
10. JG Bowsher, A Hussain, P Williams, et al. (2004) Effect of ion implantation on the tribology of metal-on-metal hip prostheses. J Arthroplasty 19(Suppl 3), 107-111.
11. JG Bowsher, J Nevelos, PA Williams, et al. (2006) “Severe” wear challenge to “as-cast” and “double heat-treated” large-diameter metal-on-metal hip bearings. Proc Inst Mech Eng [H] 220 135-143.
12. JG Bowsher, P Williams, I Clarke and T Donaldson (2006) Severe wear challenge to 36mm mechanically enhanced crosslinked polyethylene hip liners. Transactions of the 52nd Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society Chicago: Orthopaedic Research Society
13. L Bradford, DA Baker, J Graham, et al. (2004) Wear and surface cracking in early retrieved highly cross-linked polyethylene acetabular liners. J Bone Joint Surg Am 86 1271-1282.
14. M Butterfield, T Stewart, S Williams, et al. (2002) Wear of metal-metal and ceramic-ceramic hip protheses with swing phase microseparation. Transactions of the 48th Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society Dallas, TX: Orthopaedic Research Society 129.
15. JJ Callaghan, TD Brown, DR Pedersen and RC Johnston (2002) Choices and compromises in the use of small head sizes in total hip arthroplasty. Clin Orthop Relat Res 405 144-149.
16. JJ Callaghan, YS Kim, TD Brown, et al. (1995) Concerns and improvements with cementless metal-backed acetabular components. Clin Orthop Relat Res 311 76-84.
17. FW Chan, JD Bobyn, JB Medley, et al. (1996) Engineering issues and wear performance of metal on metal hip implants. Clin Orthop Relat Res 333 96-107.
18. JD Chang, SS Lee, M Hur, et al. (2005) Revision total hip arthroplasty in hip joints with metallosis: A single-center experience with 31 cases. J Arthroplasty 20 568-573.
19. J Charnley and Z Cupic (1973) The nine and ten year results of the low-friction arthroplasty of the hip. Clin Orthop Relat Res 95 9-25.
20. J Charnley, A Kamangar and MD Longfield (1969) The optimum size of prosthetic heads in relation to the wear of plastic sockets in total replacement of the hip. Med Biol Eng 7 31-39.
21. IC Clarke (1992) Role of ceramic implants: Design and clinical success with total hip prosthetic ceramic-to-ceramic bearings. Clin Orthop Relat Res 282 19-30.
22. IC Clarke and P Campbell (1989) Interface failure dynamics: Osteoclastic and macrophagic bone loss. RM Kenedi, JP Paul (Eds) Progress in Bioengineering Glasgow: Strathclyde University 104-115.
23. IC Clarke, T Donaldson, JG Bowsher, et al. (2005) Current concepts of metal-on-metal hip resurfacing. Orthop Clin North Am 36 143-162. The authors reviewed the design, biomechanics, wear, and clinical results of MOM resurfacing designs. Comparisons are made between laboratory predictions and the clinical results of MOM resurfacing compared with MOM THR. The problems of fixation of the femoral shell and neck fractures identified in the earlier designs of the 1980s remain as a potentially troublesome but fortunately only small risk in the latest designs. Release of metal ions has been measured for both THR and resurfacing, and it was concluded that more studies were needed for clarification of the issues. viii.
24. IC Clarke, V Good, L Anissian and A Gustafson (1997) Charnley wear model for validation of hip simulators: Ball diameter versus polytetrafluoroethylene and polyethylene wear. Proc Inst Mech Eng [H] 211 25-36.
25. IC Clarke and G Willmann (1994) Structural ceramics in orthopedics. HU Cameron (Eds) Bone Implant Interface St. Louis: Mosby 203-252.
26. RF Coleman, J Herrington and JT Scales (1973) Concentration of wear products in hair, blood, and urine after total hip replacement. BMJ 1 527-529.
27. Collins T, Carroll M, et al. (2004). Wear of large diameter metal on metal hip bearings in primary and revision surface replacement. 50th Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society, March 7-10, San Francisco, CA.
28. J D'Antonio, W Capello, M Manley and B Bierbaum (2002) New experience with alumina-on-alumina ceramic bearings for total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty 17 390-397.
29. J D'Antonio, W Capello, M Manley, et al. (2005) Alumina ceramic bearings for total hip arthroplasty: Five-year results of a prospective randomized study. Clin Orthop Relat Res 436 164-171.
30. G Digas, J Karrholm, J Thanner, et al. (2003) Highly cross-linked polyethylene in cemented THA: Randomized study of 61 hips. Clin Orthop Relat Res 417 126-138.
31. Donaldson T, Williams P, Andrusak L, et al. (2004). Effect of sterilization on the clinical wear of Hylamer cups. In: Transactions of the 7th World Biomaterials Congress. Sydney, Australia, p 815.
32. PF Doorn, PA Campbell, J Worrall, et al. (1998) Metal wear particle characterization from metal-on-metal total hip replacements: Transmission electron microscopy study of periprosthetic tissues and isolated particles. J Biomed Mater Res 42 103-111. This well-documented study examined the tissues from 13 patients who had undergone revision of all-metal THRs. Metal particles were recovered only from tissues that were visibly gray or black and varied in size range from 0.006 to 0.74 μm (average, 0.04 to 0.08 μm). This median-sized metal particle was more than a 100 times smaller than a red blood cell. Frequency estimates would place the number of particles at 5 to 250 million particles released for each step the patient takes. The authors noted that the larger number of metal particles and the resulting large surface area they represented did not produce any severe, local tissue reactions.
33. JM Dorlot (1992) Long-term effects of alumina components in total hip prostheses. Clin Orthop Relat Res 282 47-52.
34. JH Dumbleton and MT Manley (2005) Metal-on-metal total hip replacement: What does the literature say? J Arthroplasty 20 174-188. For surgeons using all-metal implants, the ever-present caution with such materials is the risk of biologic issues resulting from elevated metal ions. This very detailed review of all-metal hip systems compares results of the first-generation and second-generation designs with respect to clinical results, survivorship data, release of metal ions, retrieval data, wear, metal debris, tissue reactions, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and hypersensitivity issues. The authors concluded that prospective, randomized clinical studies were required with follow-ups of 15 years or more to evaluate the role of all-metal implants properly.
35. T Eickmann, M Manaka, IC Clarke and A Gustafson (2002) Squeaking and neck-socket impingement in a ceramic total hip arthroplasty. B Ben-Nissan, D Sher, W Walsh (Eds) Bioceramics-15 Enfield, NH: Trans Tech Publications 849-852.
36. A Essner, G Schmidig, L Herrera, et al. (2005) Hip wear performance of a next generation cross-linked and annealed polyethylene. Transactions of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society Washington, DC: Orthopaedic Research Society 830.
37. PJ Firkins, JL Tipper, E Ingham, et al. (2001) Influence of simulator kinematics on the wear of metal-on-metal hip prostheses. Proc Inst Mech Eng [H] 215 119-121.
38. J Fisher, AA Besong, P Firkins, et al. (2000) Comparative wear and debris generation in UHMWPE on ceramic, metal on metal, and ceramic on ceramic hip prosthesis. Transactions of the 46th Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society Orlando, FL: Orthopaedic Research Society 587.
39. AL Galvin, JL Tipper, E Ingham, et al. (2005) Nanometre size wear debris generated from crosslinked and non-crosslinked ultra high molecular weight polyethylene in artificial joints. Wear 259 977-983.
40. JP Garino (2000) Modern ceramic-on-ceramic total hip systems in the United States: Early results. Clin Orthop Relat Res 379 41-47.
41. AA Goldsmith, D Dowson, GH Isaac and JG Lancaster (2000) A comparative joint simulator study of the wear of metal-on-metal and alternative material combinations in hip replacements. Proc Inst Mech Eng [H] 214 39-47.
42. V Good, M Ries, RL Barrack, et al. (2003) Reduced wear with oxidized zirconium femoral heads. J Bone Joint Surg Am 85(Suppl 4), 105-110.
43. TR Green, J Fisher, JB Matthews, et al. (2000) Effect of size and dose on bone resorption activity of macrophages by in vitro clinically relevant ultra high molecular weight polyethylene particles. J Biomed Mater Res 53 490-497.
44. P Griss (1984) Four- to eight-year postoperative results of the partially uncemented Lindenhof-type ceramic hip endoprosthesis. E Morscher (Eds) The Cementless Fixation of Hip Endoprostheses New York: Springer-Verlag 220-224.
45. P Griss, R Silber, B Merkle, et al. (1976) Biomechanically induced tissue reactions after Al2O3-ceramic hip joint replacement: Experimental and early clinical results. J Biomed Mater Res 10 519-528.
46. A Gustafson, T Shishido, IC Clarke, et al. (2003) Consolidation of clinical and experimental experiences with all-alumina total hip replacements. 70th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons New Orleans: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons SE211.
47. RM Hall, P Siney, A Unsworth and BM Wroblewski (1997) The effect of surface topography of retrieved femoral heads on the wear of UHMWPE sockets. Med Eng Phys 19 711-719.
48. M Hamadouche, P Boutin, J Daussange, et al. (2002) Alumina-on-alumina total hip arthroplasty: A minimum 18.5-year follow-up study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 84 69-77.
49. HW Hamilton and J Gorczyca (1995) Low friction arthroplasty at 10 to 20 years. Consequences of plastic wear. Clin Orthop Relat Res 318 160-166.
50. WG Hamilton, RH Hopper Jr, SD Ginn, et al. (2005) The effect of total hip arthroplasty cup design on polyethylene wear rate. J Arthroplasty 20(Suppl 3), 63-72.
51. C Heisel, M Silva, MA dela Rosa and TP Schmalzried (2004) Short-term in vivo wear of cross-linked polyethylene. J Bone Joint Surg Am 86 748-751.
52. RJ Heros and G Willmann (1998) Ceramic in total hip arthroplasty: History, mechanical properties, clinical results, and current manufacturing state of the art. Semin Arthroplasty 9 114-122.
53. J Ingram, JB Matthews, J Tipper, et al. (2002) Comparison of the biological activity of grade GUR 1120 and GUR 415HP UHMWPE wear debris. Biomed Mater Eng 12 177-188.
54. E Ingham and J Fisher (2000) Biological reactions to wear debris in total joint replacement. Proc Inst Mech Eng [H] 214 21-37.
55. E Ingham and J Fisher (2005) The role of macrophages in osteolysis of total joint replacement. Biomaterials 26 1271-1286. This review provides the latest concepts of stimulation of macrophage cells by UHMWPE wear debris, an important part of the osteolytic cascade. UHMWPE-driven osteolysis is associated with inflamed periprosthetic membranes rich in macrophages, cytokines, and wear debris. UHMWPE particles smaller than 1 μm appear to be the most reactive, with stimulation of cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α as a key activator. This review gives a complete description of how macrophages react to the debris and current knowledge on the role of the macrophages in osteoclast differentiation from monocycte/macrophage precursors and osteoclastogenesis in arthroplasty-derived tissue macrophages.
56. JH Ingram, M Stone, J Fisher and E Ingham (2004) The influence of molecular weight, crosslinking and counterface roughness on TNF-alpha production by macrophages in response to ultra high molecular weight polyethylene particles. Biomaterials 25 3511-3522.
57. GH Isaac, BM Wroblewski, JR Atkinson and D Dowson (1992) A tribological study of retrieved hip prostheses. Clin Orthop Relat Res 276 115-125.
58. JJ Jacobs, AK Skipor, LM Patterson, et al. (1998) Metal release in patients who have had a primary total hip arthroplasty. A prospective, controlled, longitudinal study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 80 1447-1458.
59. JJ Jacobs, NJ Hallab, AK Skipor and RM Urban (2003) Metal degradation products: A cause for concern in metal-metal bearings? Clin Orthop Relat Res 417 139-147.
60. JJ Jacobs, AK Skipor, PA Campbell, et al. (2004) Can metal levels be used to monitor metal-on-metal hip arthroplasties? J Arthroplasty 19(Suppl 3), 59-65.
61. JM Kabo, JS Gebhard, G Loren and HC Amstutz (1993) In vivo wear of polyethylene acetabular components. J Bone Joint Surg Br 75 254-258.
62. C Kaddick and HG Pfaff (2000) Wear study in the alumina-Zirconia system. G Willmann, K Zweymuller (Eds) Bioceramics in Hip Joint Replacement (Proceedings of the Fifth International CeramTec Symposium) New York: Georg Thieme Verlag 146-150.
63. Kaddick C, Pfaff HG (2002). Results of hip simulator testing with various wear couples. In: Garino J, Willmann G, eds. Proceedings of the Seventh International Biolox Symposium, pp 16-20.
64. A Kobayashi, W Bonfield, Y Kadoya, et al. (1997) The size and shape of particulate polyethylene wear debris in total joint replacements. Proc Inst Mech Eng [H] 211 11-15.
65. RJ Krushell, RJ Fingeroth and MC Cushing (2005) Early femoral head penetration of a highly cross-linked polyethylene liner vs a conventional polyethylene liner: A case-controlled study. J Arthroplasty 20(Suppl 3), 73-76.
66. SM Kurtz, TP Harrigan, M Herr and MT Manley (2005) An in vitro model for fluid pressurization of screw holes in metal-backed total joint components. J Arthroplasty 20 932-938.
67. Liao YS, Fryman C, et al. (2004). Effects of clearance, head size, and start-stop protocol on wear of metal-on-metal hip joint bearings in a physiological anatomical hip joint simulator. 50th Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society, San Francisco, CA.
68. J Livermore, D Ilstrup and B Morrey (1990) Effect of femoral head size on wear of the polyethylene acetabular component. J Bone Joint Surg Am 72 518-528.
69. M Manaka, IC Clarke, K Yamamoto, et al. (2004) Stripe wear rates in alumina THR: Comparison of microseparation simulator study with retrieved implants. J Biomed Mater Res 69 149-157.
70. DW Manning, PP Chiang, JM Martell, et al. (2005) In vivo comparative wear study of traditional and highly cross-linked polyethylene in total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty 20 880-886.
71. JM Martell, E Berkson, R Berger and J Jacobs (2003) Comparison of two and three-dimensional computerized polyethylene wear analysis after total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am 85 1111-1117.
72. GK McKee and SC Chen (1973) The statistics of the McKee-Farrar method of total hip replacement. Clin Orthop Relat Res 95 26-33.
73. H McKellop, P Campbell, SH Park, et al. (1995) The origin of submicron polyethylene wear debris in total hip arthroplasty. Clin Orthop Relat Res 311 3-20.
74. H McKellop, SH Park, R Chiesa, et al. (1996) In vivo wear of three types of metal on metal hip prostheses during two decades of use. Clin Orthop Relat Res 329(Suppl), S128-S140.
75. I Milosev, R Trebse, S Kovac, et al. (2006) Survivorship and retrieval analysis of Sikomet metal-on-metal total hip replacements at a mean of seven years. J Bone Joint Surg Am 88(6), 1173-1182.
76. H Mittelmeier and J Harms (1979) [Treatment of post-traumatic hip joint disease by total replacement with a ceramic endoprosthesis]. Unfallheilkunde 82 67-75.
77. H Mittelmeier and J Heisel (1992) Sixteen-years' experience with ceramic hip prostheses. Clin Orthop Relat Res 282 64-72.
78. ME Muller (1995) The benefits of metal-on-metal total hip replacements. Clin Orthop Relat Res 311 54-59.
79. JE Nevelos, E Ingham, C Doyle, et al. (1999) Analysis of retrieved alumina ceramic components from Mittelmeier total hip prostheses. Biomaterials 20 1833-1840.
80. JE Nevelos, E Ingham, C Doyle, et al. (2001) The influence of acetabular cup angle on the wear of “Biolox forte” alumina ceramic bearing couples in a hip joint simulator. J Mater Sci Mater Med 12 141-144.
81. JE Nevelos, F Prudhommeaux, M Hamadouche, et al. (2001) Comparative analysis of two different types of alumina-alumina hip prosthesis retrieved for aseptic loosening. J Bone Joint Surg Br 83 598-603. This study is one of the more complete retrieval studies of COC hip replacement with 1 to 18 years of follow-up. Eleven cases were from the United Kingdom and represented the Mittelmeier device from 1974 era. Another 11 cases were from France and represented the Ceraver-Osteal device from the 1977 era. These were classified into three groups: no measurable wear, stripe wear on the ball and cup, and severe macroscopic wear with loss of sphericity. Linear wear rates varied from less than 0.001 mm/year to more than 0.5 mm/year, with a mean value of 0.056 mm/year. The cases with severe wear appeared related to risk factors such as more vertical cup angles with cup tilting and loosening. Thus it was inferred that inferior, one-piece cup designs were the major problem.
82. H Oonishi, H Ishimaru and A Kato (1996) Effect of cross-linkage by gamma radiation in heavy doses to low wear polyethylene in total hip prostheses. J Mater Sci Mater Med 7 753-763.
83. H Oonishi, Y Kadoya and S Masuda (2001) Gamma-irradiated cross-linked polyethylene in total hip replacements: Analysis of retrieved sockets after long-term implantation. J Biomed Mater Res 58 167-171.
84. H Oonishi, M Kuno, E Tsuji and A Fujisawa (1996) The optimum dose of gamma radiation-heavy doses to low wear polyethylene in total hip prostheses. J Mater Sci Mater Med 8 11-18.
85. H Oonishi, M Ueno, H Okimatsu and H Amino (1996) Investigation of the wear behavior of ceramic on ceramic combinations in total hip prosthesis. T Kokubo, T Nakamura, F Miyaji (Eds) Bioceramics-9 Otsu, Japan: Pergamon Press 503-506.
86. PC Oparaugo, IC Clarke, H Malchau and P Herberts (2001) Correlation of wear debris-induced osteolysis and revision with volumetric wear-rates of polyethylene: A survey of 8 reports in the literature. Acta Orthop Scand 72 22-28. This survey examined the clinical incidence of UHMWPE wear and its relationship with osteolysis and revision in clinical series from 1983 to 1987. Clinical follow-ups over 10 years revealed design differences that were not evident with shorter follow-up. Osteolysis was found to be rare for UHMWPE with wear rates less than 80 mm 3/year, it was up to 31% incidence with wear rates up to 140 mm 3/year, and it occurred in 100% of cases with wear rates greater than 140 mm 3/year. With regard to design, the cemented UHMWPE cups with small femoral heads did best, the medium-risk group had the metal-backed UHMWPE cup, and the highest-risk group had the 32-mm diameter, noncemented, metal-backed, UHMWPE cup.
87. W Plitz, A Walter and M Jager (1984) [Material-specific wear of ceramic/ceramic sliding surfaces in revised hip endoprostheses: Clinical and technological considerations.]. Z Orthop Ihre Grenzgeb 122 299-303.
88. F Prudhommeaux, M Hamadouche, J Nevelos, et al. (2000) Wear of alumina-on-alumina total hip arthroplasties at a mean 11-year followup. Clin Orthop Relat Res 379 113-122.
89. CB Rieker, P Kottig, R Schon, et al. (1998) Clinical wear performance of metal-on-metal hip arthroplasties. J Jacobs, TL Craig (Eds) Alternative Bearing Surfaces in Total Joint Replacement Fredericksburg, VA: American Society for Testing and Materials 144-156. Special Technical Publication 1346.
90. V Saikko and HG Pfaff (1997) Wear of alumina-alumina total replacement hip joints studied with a hip joint simulator. Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Performance of the Wear Couple Biolox-Forte in Hip Arthroplasty Stuttgart: CeramTec 117-122.
91. TP Schmalzried (2005) Metal-on-metal resurfacing arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty 20(Suppl 2), 70-71.
92. TP Schmalzried, IC Clarke and H McKellop (1998) Bearing surfaces. JJ Callaghan, A Rosenberg, H Rubash (Eds) The Adult Hip Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven 247-265.
93. TP Schmalzried, VA Fowble, KJ Ure and HC Amstutz (1996) Metal on metal surface replacement of the hip: Technique, fixation, and early results. Clin Orthop Relat Res 329(Suppl), S106-S114.
94. TP Schmalzried, PC Peters, BT Maurer, et al. (1996) Long-duration metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasties with low wear of the articulating surfaces. J Arthroplasty 11 322-331.
95. TP Schmalzried, EF Shepherd, FJ Dorey, et al. (2000) The John Charnley award: Wear is a function of use, not time. Clin Orthop Relat Res 381 36-46.
96. SC Scholes and A Unsworth (2006) The effects of proteins on the friction and lubrication of artificial joints. Proc Inst Mech Eng [H] 220 687-693. This detailed analysis of friction in hip and knee joint replacements used a variety of lubricant types to compare 28-mm diameter metal/UHMWPE, COC, and MOM bearing performance. In bovine serum and synovial fluid, MOM averaged three- to fourfold higher friction than the metal/UHMWPE and COC combinations. In terms of lubrication modes, COC appeared to be the only one capable of operating under fluid film conditions. The metal/UHMWPE and MOM bearings appeared to be operating under the mixed-lubrication mode (i.e., partial metal contact and partial fluid-film support).
97. M Scott, M Morrison, SR Mishra and S Jani (2005) Particle analysis for the determination of UHMWPE wear. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 73 325-337.
98. ML Scott and J Lemons (1998) The wear characteristics of Sivash SRN Co-Cr-Mo THA articulating surfaces. J Jacobs, TL Craig (Eds) Alternative Bearing Surfaces in Total Joint Replacement Fredericksburg, VA: American Society for Testing and Materials 159-172. Special Technical Publication 1346.
99. L Sedel (2000) Evolution of alumina-on-alumina implants: A review. Clin Orthop Relat Res 379 48-54. This review was compiled by one the leading European ceramic groups with 30 years of experience and many publications. This overview explains the pitfalls encountered in ceramic hip designs of the 1970s and 1980s. Much of the development entailed improving the quality of the alumina ceramic and developing test methods to satisfy the safety of the ceramic implants. Cemented or press-fit, one-piece ceramic cups were bulky and had inadequate fixation. Nevertheless, despite loosening problems, osteolysis was documented to be less than 1% overall. By 1989, better ceramic designs were available using the improved fixation concepts of metal-backed cups designed for bone ingrowth. The major long-term benefit alumina-on-alumina implants has been easy revision with good bone stock preserved because of the absence of osteolysis.
100. L Sedel, RS Nizard, L Kerboull and J Witvoet (1994) Alumina-alumina hip replacement in patients younger than 50 years old. Clin Orthop Relat Res 298 175-183.
101. L Sedel, R Nizard and P Bizot (2000) Osteolysis and ceramic bearing surfaces. J Bone Joint Surg Am 82 1519. author reply 1520-1521.
102. M Semlitsch, M Lehmann, H Weber, et al. (1977) New prospects for a prolonged functional life-span of artificial hip joints by using the material combination polyethylene/aluminium oxide ceramin/metal. J Biomed Mater Res 11 537-552.
103. KA Shaju, ST Hasan, LG D'Souza, et al. (2005) The 22-mm vs the 32-mm femoral head in cemented primary hip arthroplasty: Long-term clinical and radiological follow-up study. J Arthroplasty 20 903-908.
104. T Shishido, IC Clarke, P Williams, et al. (2001) Clinical wear and simulator study of ceramic-ceramic THR to 20 years and beyond. Transactions of the 47th Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society Dallas, TX: Orthopaedic Research Society 1019.
105. T Shishido, IC Clarke, P Williams, et al. (2003) Clinical and simulator wear study of alumina ceramic THR to 17 years and beyond. J Biomed Mater Res 67 638-647.
106. DH Sochart (1999) Relationship of acetabular wear to osteolysis and loosening in total hip arthroplasty. Clin Orthop Relat Res 363 135-150.
107. RM Streicher (1993) [UHMW-polyethylene as the substance for articulating components of joint prostheses]. Biomed Tech (Berl) 38 303-313.
108. Tateiwa T, Clarke IC, Garino J, et al. (year?). Use of ceramics in hip replacements: Safety and risks revisited. ???.
109. A Toni and S Affatato (1999) New wear couples for THR-simulator testing. L Sedel, G Willmann (Eds) Reliability and Long-term Results of Ceramics in Orthopaedics New York: Georg Thieme Verlag 2191-2197.
110. M Wagner and H Wagner (2000) Medium-term results of a modern metal-on-metal system in total hip replacement. Clin Orthop Relat Res 379 123-133.
111. PS Walker and MJ Erkman (1972) Metal-on-metal lubrication in artificial human joints. Wear 21 377-392.
112. PS Walker and BL Gold (1971) The tribology (friction, lubrication and wear) of all-metal artificial hip joints. Wear 17 285-299.
113. A Walter (1997) Investigations on the wear couple Biolox forte/Biolox forte and earlier alumina materials. Bioceramics in Joint Arthroplasty: Proceedings of the Second International Biolox Symposium Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag 123-135.
114. Walter WL, Insley G, Walter WK, Tuke M (2003). The mechanics of Stripe Wear formation in a modern ceramic on ceramic bearing. In: 70th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. New Orleans, p 278.
115. A Walter and W Plitz (1984) Wear mechanism of alumina-ceramic bearing surfaces of hip-joint protheses. P Ducheyne, G Van der Perre, AE Aubert (Eds) Biomaterials and Biomechanics Amsterdam: Elsevier Science 55-61.
116. RC Wasielewski, JJ Jacobs, B Arthurs and HE Rubash (2005) The acetabular insert-metal backing interface: An additional source of polyethylene wear debris. J Arthroplasty 20 914-922.
117. S Williams, TD Stewart, E Ingham, et al. (2004) Metal-on-metal bearing wear with different swing phase loads. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 70 233-239.
118. G Willmann (2000) Ceramic femoral head retrieval data. Clin Orthop Relat Res 379 22-28.
119. MA Wimmer, J Loos, R Nassutt, et al. (2001) The acting wear mechanisms on metal-on-metal hip joint bearings: In vitro results. Wear 250 129-139.
120. BM Wroblewski and PD Siney (1992) Charnley low-friction arthroplasty in the young patient. Clin Orthop Relat Res 285 45-47.
121. BM Wroblewski, PD Siney, D Dowson and SN Collins (1996) Prospective clinical and joint simulator studies of a new total hip arthroplasty using alumina ceramic heads and cross-linked polyethylene cups. J Bone Joint Surg Br 78 280-285.
122. BM Wroblewski, PD Siney and PA Fleming (1999) Low-friction arthroplasty of the hip using alumina ceramic and cross-linked polyethylene: A ten-year follow-up report. J Bone Joint Surg Br 81 54-55.
123. BM Wroblewski, PD Siney and PA Fleming (2002) Charnley low-frictional torque arthroplasty in patients under the age of 51 years: Follow-up to 33 years. J Bone Joint Surg Br 84 540-543.
124. K Yamamoto, IC Clarke, T Masaoka, et al. (2001) Microwear phenomena of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene cups and debris morphology related to gamma radiation dose in simulator study. J Biomed Mater Res 56 65-73.
125. A Yew, M Jagatia, H Ensaff and ZM Jin (2003) Analysis of contact mechanics in McKee-Farrar metal-on-metal hip implants. Proc Inst Mech Eng [H] 217 333-340.
126. LP Zichner and HG Willert (1992) Comparison of alumina-polyethylene and metal-polyethylene in clinical trials. Clin Orthop Relat Res 282 86-94.
127. HC Amstutz, PE Beaule, FJ Dorey, et al. (2004) Metal-on-metal hybrid surface arthroplasty: Two to six-year follow-up study. J Bone Joint Surg 86 28-39. This is a clinical follow-up study of 400 metal-on-metal surface arthroplasties with cemented femoral components and uncemented acetabular components. Most of the patients in the study were highly active; their average age was 48 years. The authors drew attention to the importance of patient selection and reported that women and patients with femoral head cysts had less successful results.
128. TP Andriacchi, GB Andersson, RW Fermier, et al. (1980) A study of lower-limb mechanics during stair-climbing. J Bone Joint Surg Am 62 749-757.
129. PE Beaulé, FJ Dorey, M LeDuff, et al. (2004) Risk factors affecting outcome of metal-on-metal surface arthroplasty of the hip. Clin Orthop Relat Res 418 87-93. This is a follow-up of 119 patients younger than 40 years of age (mean, 34 years) with hybrid metal-on-metal surface arthroplasty. This article introduced a surface arthroplasty risk index and compared it with a conventional THR risk index for younger patients. Specifically, although patients who weighed more than 82 kg were at greater risk of failure using conventional THR, patients who weighed less than 82 kg were at twice the risk of failure using surface arthroplasty.
130. GF Bergmann, G Deuretzbacher, M Heller, et al. (2001) Hip contact forces and gait patterns from routine activities. J Biomech 34 859-871. The authors described the design of the instrumented prosthesis for in vivo measurement of loads on the hip joint of patients during various activities. They also reported the magnitudes and directions of typical walking and stair-climbing loads, representative of the predominant daily physiologic loading conditions.
131. G Bergmann, F Graichen and A Rohlmann (1993) Hip joint loading during walking and running, measured in two patients. J Biomech 26 969-990.
132. RE Booth Jr (2002) Total knee arthroplasty in the obese patient: Tips and quips. J Arthroplasty 17(4 Suppl 1), 69-70. 18% of obese patients were reported to achieve or maintain a significant weight reduction after total knee arthroplasty. However, the author reported that obese patients were the “least complaining and most satisfied” of total knee replacement patients.
133. Bren L (March-April 2004). Joint Replacement: An Inside Look. FDA Consumer Magazine, Pub No. FDA 04-1335C. The author provides an overview of total hip and knee replacement as well as total surface replacement for the lay reader. Some of the key concerns in total joint replacement are outlined. Additionally, the patient's demands to return to high-impact activities after joint replacement are described.
134. J Charnley (1979) Low Friction Arthroplasty of the Hip Theory of Practice New York: Springer-Verlag Many of Charnley's original articles are now available online, but this book is an excellent summary of his work with low friction arthroplasty. His clinical observations, surgical techniques, implant design rationale, and in vitro studies are summarized. Although some may regard this as outdated, Charnley's vision, insight, and conclusions are still very relevant today.
135. RD Crowninshield, AG Rosenberg and SM Sporer (2006) Changing demographics of patients with total joint replacement. Clin Orthop Relat Res 443 266-272. This is a summary of the changes in the demographics of the population in the United States over the past 40 years. The authors reported that total joint replacement patients today are 20% heavier, more physically active, and live 25% longer than patients 40 years ago. The authors also reported that the number of TKRs performed annually is increasing at a faster rate than the number of THRs, which is likely due to the stronger correlation between obesity and knee arthritis and the increasing number of obese patients. The authors also reported that more women (60%) have total joint replacement annually than men (40%).
136. L Dubs, N Gschwend and U Munzinger (1983) Sport after total hip arthroplasty. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 101 161-169. This is a clinical study that examines the effect of sports on the outcome of cemented total hip arthroplasty at a mean follow-up of 5.8 years. There were 110 patients in the study, 78% of whom were active in sports. Of that active group, there was a 1.6% revision rate, compared with a 14% revision rate for the inactive group. Based on their findings, the authors recommended that non-contact sports be allowed following THR. Specifically, the authors recommended swimming, cycling, rowing, and walking in the first 6 postoperative months, allowing tennis, jogging, cross-country skiing, and hiking after that, but no contact sports.
137. E Ebramzadeh, SN Sangiorgio, DB Longjohn, et al. (2004) Initial stability of cemented femoral stems as a function of surface finish, collar, and stem size. J Bone Joint Surg 86 106-115. The initial stability of eight otherwise identical stem-types, differing systematically in surface finish, size (small or large), and the presence or lack of a cement collar, were compared using an in vitro proximal femoral load simulator. The authors applied an alternating walking and stair-climbing load profile with a peak load of 1500 N during walking cycles and a peak torque about the femoral shaft of 23 Nm during stair-climbing cycles. Motions were quantified three ways: (1) per-cycle motion, (2) total motion throughout loading (in migration), and (3) rate of migration. These values were determined for the stem-cement interface and the bone-cement interface and compared for each of the eight stem-types to determine the relative importance of each of the three design parameters. Overall, surface roughness had the greatest influence on stability, followed by stem size, with the presence or lack of a collar having the smallest relative effect.
138. E Ebramzadeh, PL Normand, SN Sangiorgio, et al. (2003) Long-term radiographic changes in cemented total hip arthroplasty with six designs of femoral components. Biomaterials 24 3351-3363. This study reported strong correlations between femoral stem stiffness and radiographic outcome over 30 years of follow-up. The radiographic parameters of looseness were assessed for more than 800 patients, each with one of six stem-types (three stainless steel and three titanium alloy designs) varying in cross-sectional rigidity. The relationships between stem stiffness (due to metal alloy and cross-sectional area) and aseptic loosening, stem–cement radiolucency, bone–cement radiolucency, and calcar resorption, for example, were depicted using survivorship analysis.
139. N Eftekhar (1993) Total Hip Arthroplasty St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book This two-volume book is a collection of information on many aspects of total hip arthroplasty. The author covers history, biomechanics, surgical approaches and techniques, and clinical outcome data and examples collected over many years.
140. MO Ericson, A Bratt, R Nisell, et al. (1986) Load moments about the hip and knee joints during ergometer cycling. Scand J Rehabil Med 18 165-172.
141. JR Foran, MA Mont, G Etienne, et al. (2004) The outcome of total knee arthroplasty in obese patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am 86 1609-1615. This is a clinical follow-up study that compared the 15-year TKA outcome for matched groups of obese versus non-obese patients. The authors reported that the rate of revision for the obese group was three times higher than that of the non-obese group but that the modes of loosening varied. Specifically, the obese group had a higher rate of aseptic loosening and the non-obese group had a greater risk of accelerated polyethylene liner wear.
142. WE Griffiths, SA Swanson and MA Freeman (1971) Experimental fatigue of the human cadaveric femoral neck. J Bone Joint Surg Br 53 136-143.
143. DA Heck, CM Partridge, JD Ruben, et al. (1995) Prosthetic component failures in hip arthroplasty surgery. J Arthrop 10 575-580. This article is the result of a survey conducted by the American Association of Hip and Knee Surgeons to determine the members' experience with device failures; 47% of the members participated and reported their results for more than 60,000 arthroplasties in a 5-year period. Complete polyethylene failure for metal-backed shells was reported for 0.29%, and failure of all-polyethylene components had a higher risk of failure of 2.39%. Stem fractures occurred at a rate of 0.27%, and cement ball fractures occurred at a rate of 0.22%. Because no national joint registry exists in the United States, this survey provides the best indication of the risks of device failures in the United States in contemporary THR.
144. C Heisel, M Silva, MA dela Rosa, et al. (2005) The effects of lower-extremity total joint replacement for arthritis on obesity. Orthopedics 28 157-159. This prospective study investigated the weight change in 100 total joint replacement patients at a minimum of 1-year postoperatively. The patients received total knee replacements ( N = 45), conventional THRs ( N = 36), or surface replacement of the hip ( N = 19). The surface replacement patients were younger (mean, 13 years) than the conventional THR patients. The results indicated that younger patients gained a significant amount of weight after surgery (mean, 3.2 kg), while the older, conventional THR patients did not. Further, the patients who had “normal” or “obese” BMI classifications preoperatively did not lose weight, but those classified as “overweight” before surgery gained a significant amount of weight postoperatively (mean, 3.6 kg). Overall, the authors suggested that the rationale that the weight was a result of the pain, and pain loss would result in weight loss, may not be true.
145. V Inman (1947) Functional aspects of the abductor muscles of the hip. J Bone Joint Surg 29 607-619.
146. SA Jain, RT Roach and J Travlos (2003) Changes in body mass index following primary elective total hip arthroplasty. Correlation with outcome at 2 years. Acta Orthop Belg 69 421-425. The authors conducted a retrospective clinical study to determine if BMI increased after THR. They compared the preoperative BMI to the BMI at a minimum of 2 years postoperatively. They concluded that there was an average weight gain of 2.5% and BMI increase of 2.1% but that no correlation existed between weight gain and patient satisfaction.
147. H Malchau, P Herberts, T Eisler, et al. (2002) The Swedish Total Hip Replacement Register. J Bone Joint Surg Am 84(Suppl 2), 2-20. This is the Swedish national joint registry, one of the largest and most thorough total joint replacement registries in the literature. The multicenter clinical outcome is presented in many ways, including by stem-type, cemented versus uncemented, hospital type (e.g., rural versus university), and age. The number of implants and the percentage of patients with unrevised replacements at given intervals of follow-up are presented for the most common implants. Additionally, the most common reasons for revision are presented. In addition to this registry, the Finnish, Danish, Norwegian, and Australian registries, for example, can also be found in the literature or online for comparison.
148. R McLeish and J Charnley (1970) Abduction forces in the one-legged stance. J Biomech 3 191-209.
149. G Nemeth, J Ekholm and UP Arborelius (1984) Hip load moments and muscular activity during lifting. Scand J Rehabil Med 16 103-111.
150. JP Paul (1970) The effect of walking speed on the force actions transmitted at the hip and knee joints. Proc R Soc Med 63 200-202.
151. JP Paul (1999) Strength requirements for internal and external prostheses. J Biomech 32 381-393. The author has numerous publications on gait analysis and joint reaction forces, but this is an excellent review of both his work and the work of others, with regard to load measurements and calculations at the hip and knee. The author provides summary charts of loads reported by himself and others for walking at various speeds, joint load as a function of stride length, and different versions of the Paul curve. Additionally, current implant testing standards are described.
152. F Pauwels (Ed.) (1935) Der Schenkelhalsbruck, ein Mechanisches Problem Stuttgart, Germany: Perdinand Enke
153. MA Ritter and JB Meding (1987) Total hip arthroplasty. Can the patient play sports again? Orthopedics 10 1447-1452. In this study, a questionnaire was sent to patients with a minimum of 3 years of follow-up, to list the type, degree, and frequency of sports participation before and after surgery and any problems encountered upon returning to a sport after surgery. The authors concluded that there was a significant decrease in all forms of activity after surgery except bicycling, but most patients who were active preoperatively remained active afterward. These investigators reported that activities such as walking, golfing, and bowling had no influence (good or bad) on the outcome of the surgery.
154. N Rydell (1966) Forces acting on the femoral head-prosthesis. Acta Orthop Scand 88(Suppl), 1-132.
155. SN Sangiorgio, E Ebramzadeh, DB Longjohn, et al. (2004) Effects of dorsal flanges on fixation of a cemented total hip replacement femoral stem. J Bone Joint Surg Am 86 813-820. In this study, the authors compared the in vitro stability of otherwise identical straight cemented femoral stems with and without flanges, in two stem sizes, under dynamic physiological loading simulating walking and stair-climbing activities. The authors reported that flanges increased the stability within the cement mantle, but decreased the stability at the bone-cement interface. That is, non-flanged stems were less stable at the stem-cement interface, but more stable at the bone-cement interface than flanged stems.
156. Sangiorgio SN, Longjohn DB, Dorr LD, et al. (In press). Simulations of loads on the proximal femur: The introduction of a new simulator. J Appl Biomat Biomech. This article provides a review of the literature and current controversies and issues in femoral stem stability testing. Additionally, a new in vitro femoral load simulator that applies higher loads (peak loads: joint reaction: 3500 N; torque: 24 Nm: abductor muscle: 1500 N) through a dynamic alternating walking and stair-climbing load profile is described in detail. Results of preliminary studies comparing the stability measurements using this simulator to that of a previously published simulator, for an identical stem-type are provided.
157. FJ Shelley, DD Anderson, MJ Kolar, et al. (1996) Physical modelling of hip joint forces in stair climbing. Proc Inst Mech Eng 210 65-68. [H]
158. EB Simonsen, P Dyhre-Poulsen, M Voigt, et al. (1995) Bone-on-bone forces during loaded and unloaded walking. Acta Anat 152 133-142. (Basel)
159. BW Stansfield and AC Nicol (2002) Hip joint contact forces in normal subjects and subjects with total hip prostheses: Walking and stair and ramp negotiation. Clin Biomech 17 130-139. (Bristol, Avon)
160. BW Stansfield, AC Nicol, JP Paul, et al. (2003) Direct comparison of calculated hip joint contact forces with those measured using instrumented implants. An evaluation of a three-dimensional mathematical model of the lower limb. J Biomech 36 929-936.
161. AJ van den Bogert, L Read and BM Nigg (1999) An analysis of hip joint loading during walking, running, and skiing. Med Sci Sports Exerc 31 131-142.
162. A Wendelboe, K Hegmann, JJ Biggs, et al. (2003) Relationships between body mass indices and surgical replacements of knee and hip joints. Am J Prev Med 25 290-295. This frequency-matched case-control study compared 1751 patients who underwent total joint replacement between the ages of 55 and 74 with randomly matched patients who were enrolled in a cancer screening trial. The results indicated that for men, a BMI of 37.5–40 made them 9 times more likely to have a THR and 16 times more likely to have a total knee replacement. For women, a BMI = 40 made them 4 times more likely to have a THR, but 19 times more likely to have a total knee replacement. The authors concluded that while they found links between total joint replacement and obesity, they could not conclude that obesity conferred an independent risk for total joint replacement.
163. P Wretenberg, G Nemeth, M Lamontagne, et al. (1996) Passive knee muscle moment arms measured in vivo with MRI. Clin Biomech 11 439-446. (Bristol, Avon)