HETEROGENEITY OF DRUG RESPONSES AND INDIVIDUALIZATION OF THERAPY

Pharmacology and Therapeutics: Principles to Practice

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 225-238

  Kirchheiner, Julia ^a   Schwab, Matthias ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ULM   (Germany)

^b DR MARGARETE FISCHER BOSCH INSTITUTE OF CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL TÜBINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85158922512     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4160-3291-5.50020-2     Document Type: Chapter

References (156)

1. J Lazarou, BH Pomeranz and PN Corey (1998) Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA 279 1200-1205.
2. S Schneeweiss, J Hasford, M Gottler, et al. (2002) Admissions caused by adverse drug events to internal medicine and emergency departments in hospitals: a longitudinal population-based study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 58 285-291.
3. M Pirmohamed, S James, S Meakin, et al. (2004) Adverse drug reactions as cause of admission to hospital: prospective analysis of 18,820 patients. BMJ 329 15-19.
4. WE Evans and HL McLeod (2003) Pharmacogenomics—drug disposition, drug targets, and side effects. N Engl J Med 348 538-549.
5. WE Evans and MV Relling (1999) Pharmacogenomics: translating functional genomics into rational therapeutics. Science 286 487-491.
6. K Lindpaintner (2003) Pharmacogenetics and the future of medical practice. J Mol Med 81 141-153.
7. T Shimada, H Yamazaki, M Mimura, et al. (1994) Interindividual variations in human liver cytochrome P-450 enzymes involved in the oxidation of drugs, carcinogens and toxic chemicals: studies with liver microsomes of 30 Japanese and 30 Caucasians. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 270 414-423.
8. SMF De Morais, GR Wilkinson, J Blaisdell, et al. (1994) Identification of a new genetic defect responsible for the polymorphism of (S)-mephenytoin metabolism in Japanese. Mol Pharmacol 46 594-598.
9. C Sachse, J Brockmöller, S Bauer, et al. (1997) Cytochrome P450 2D6 variants in a Caucasian population: allele frequencies and phenotypic consequences. Am J Hum Genet 60 284-295.
10. UM Zanger, S Raimundo and M Eichelbaum (2004) Cytochrome P450 2D6: overview and update on pharmacology, genetics, biochemistry. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 369 23-37.
11. JO Miners and DJ Birkett (1998) Cytochrome P4502C9: an enzyme of major importance in human drug metabolism. Br J Clin Pharmacol 45 525-538.
12. U Zanger, K Klein, T Saussele, et al. (2007) Polymorphic CYP2B6: molecular mechanisms and emerging clinical significance. Pharmacogenomics 8 743-759.
13. F Sata, A Sapone, G Elizondo, et al. (2000) CYP3A4 allelic variants with amino acid substitutions in exons 7 and 12: evidence for an allelic variant with altered catalytic activity. Clin Pharmacol Ther 67 48-56.
14. O Burk and L Wojnowski (2004) Cytochrome P450 3A and their regulation. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 369 105-124.
15. JG Jiang, CL Chen, JW Card, et al. (2005) Cytochrome P450 2J2 promotes the neoplastic phenotype of carcinoma cells and is up-regulated in human tumors. Cancer Res 65 4707-4715.
16. B Mayer, W Lieb, A Gotz, et al. (2005) Association of the T8590C polymorphism of CYP4A11 with hypertension in the MONICA Augsburg echocardiographic substudy. Hypertension 46 766-771.
17. CM Drysdale, DW McGraw, CB Stack, et al. (2000) Complex promoter and coding region beta 2-adrenergic receptor haplotypes alter receptor expression and predict in vivo responsiveness. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97 10483-10488.
18. E Israel, JM Drazen, SB Liggett, et al. (2000) The effect of polymorphisms of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor on the response to regular use of albuterol in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162 75-80.
19. V Dishy, GG Sofowora, HG Xie, et al. (2001) The effect of common polymorphisms of the beta2-adrenergic receptor on agonist-mediated vascular desensitization. N Engl J Med 345 1030-1035.
20. J Kirchheiner and J Brockmoller (2005) Clinical consequences of cytochrome P450 2C9 polymorphisms. Clin Pharmacol Ther 77 1-16.
21. J Kirchheiner, K Brøsen, ML Dahl, et al. (2001) CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genotype-based dose recommendations for antidepressants: a first step towards subpopulation-specific dosages. Acta Psychiatr Scand 104 173-192.
22. HL McLeod and C Siva (2002) The thiopurine S-methyltransferase gene locus—implications for clinical pharmacogenomics. Pharmacogenomics 3 89-98.
23. M Bauer, PC Whybrow, J Angst, et al., the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) (2002) Guidelines for biological treatment of unipolar depressive disorders, part 1: acute and continuation treatment of major depressive disorder. World J Biol Psychiatry 3 5-43.
24. P Baumann, M Jonzier Perey, L Koeb, et al. (1986) Amitriptyline pharmacokinetics and clinical response: II. Metabolic polymorphism assessed by hydroxylation of debrisoquine and mephenytoin. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1 102-112.
25. L Bertilsson, ML Dahl, P Dalen, et al. (2002) Molecular genetics of CYP2D6: clinical relevance with focus on psychotropic drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol 53 111-122.
26. UM Zanger, J Fischer, S Raimundo, et al. (2001) Comprehensive analysis of the genetic factors determining expression and function of hepatic CYP2D6. Pharmacogenetics 11 573-585.
27. EU Griese, UM Zanger, U Brudermanns, et al. (1998) Assessment of the predictive power of genotypes for the in-vivo catalytic function of CYP2D6 in a German population. Pharmacogenetics 8 15-26.
28. J Kirchheiner, K Nickchen, M Bauer, et al. (2004) Pharmacogenetics of antidepressants and antipsychotics: the contribution of allelic variations to the phenotype of drug response. Mol Psychiatry 9 442-473.
29. K Brøsen and LF Gram (1989) Pharmacokinetic and clinical significance of genetic variability in psychotropic drug metabolism. Psychopharmacol Ser 7 192-200.
30. W Steimer, K Zopf, S von Amelunxen, et al. (2005) Amitriptyline or not, that is the question: pharmacogenetic testing of CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 identifies patients with low or high risk for side effects in amitriptyline therapy. Clin Chem 51 376-385.
31. K Laine, G Tybring, S Hartter, et al. (2001) Inhibition of cytochrome P4502D6 activity with paroxetine normalizes the ultrarapid metabolizer phenotype as measured by nortriptyline pharmacokinetics and the debrisoquin test. Clin Pharmacol Ther 70 327-335.
32. YW Lam, A Gaedigk, L Ereshefsky, et al. (2002) CYP2D6 inhibition by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: analysis of achievable steady-state plasma concentrations and the effect of ultrarapid metabolism at CYP2D6. Pharmacotherapy 22 1001-1006.
33. JA Carrillo, ML Dahl, JO Svensson, et al. (1996) Disposition of fluvoxamine in humans is determined by the polymorphic CYP2D6 and also by the CYP1A2 activity. Clin Pharmacol Ther 60 183-190.
34. O Spigset, K Granberg, S Hagg, et al. (1997) Relationship between fluvoxamine pharmacokinetics and CYP2D6/CYP2C19 phenotype polymorphisms. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 52 129-133.
35. O Spigset, K Granberg, S Hagg, et al. (1998) Non-linear fluvoxamine disposition. Br J Clin Pharmacol 45 257-263.
36. SH Sindrup, K Brøsen and LF Gram (1992) Pharmacokinetics of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine: nonlinearity and relation to the sparteine oxidation polymorphism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 51 288-295.
37. LF Gram, TW Guentert, S Grange, et al. (1995) Moclobemide, a substrate of CYP2C19 and an inhibitor of CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP1A2: a panel study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 57 670-677.
38. JH Wang, ZQ Liu, W Wang, et al. (2001) Pharmacokinetics of sertraline in relation to genetic polymorphism of CYP2C19. Clin Pharmacol Ther 70 42-47.
39. SH Sindrup, K Brøsen, MG Hansen, et al. (1993) Pharmacokinetics of citalopram in relation to the sparteine and the mephenytoin oxidation polymorphisms. Ther Drug Monit 15 11-17.
40. J Kirchheiner, HB Henckel, I Meineke, et al. (2004) Impact of the CYP2D6 ultrarapid metabolizer genotype on mirtazapine pharmacokinetics and adverse events in healthy volunteers. J Clin Psychopharmacol 24 647-652.
41. T Fukuda, I Yamamoto, Y Nishida, et al. (1999) Effect of the CYP2D610 genotype on venlafaxine pharmacokinetics in healthy adult volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 47 450-453.
42. T Fukuda, Y Nishida, Q Zhou, et al. (2000) The impact of the CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genotypes on venlafaxine pharmacokinetics in a Japanese population. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 56 175-180.
43. SV Otton, SE Ball, SW Cheung, et al. (1996) Venlafaxine oxidation in vitro is catalysed by CYP2D6. Br J Clin Pharmacol 41 149-156.
44. AH Veefkind, PM Haffmans and E Hoencamp (2000) Venlafaxine serum levels and CYP2D6 genotype. Ther Drug Monit 22 202-208.
45. E Lessard, M Yessine, B Hamelin, et al. (1999) Influence of CYP2D6 activity on the disposition and cardiovascular toxicity of the antidepressant agent venlafaxine in humans. Pharmacogenetics 9 435-443.
46. RH Barbhaiya, AB Buch and DS Greene (1996) Single and multiple dose pharmacokinetics of nefazodone in subjects classified as extensive and poor metabolizers of dextromethorphan. Br J Clin Pharmacol 42 573-581.
47. P Dostert, MS Benedetti and I Poggesi (1997) Review of the pharmacokinetics and metabolism of reboxetine, a selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 7(Suppl 1), S23-S35. discussion S71-S73.
48. SR Faucette, RL Hawke, SS Shord, et al. (2001) Evaluation of the contribution of cytochrome P450 3A4 to human liver microsomal bupropion hydroxylation. Drug Metab Dispos 29 1123-1129.
49. MP Schoerlin, RA Blouin, JP Pfefen, et al. (1990) Comparison of the pharmacokinetics of moclobemide in poor and efficient metabolizers of debrisoquine. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 360 98-100.
50. T Rau, G Wohlleben, H Wuttke, et al. (2004) CYP2D6 genotype: impact on adverse effects and nonresponse during treatment with antidepressants—a pilot study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 75 386-393.
51. K Grasmader, PL Verwohlt, M Rietschel, et al. (2004) Impact of polymorphisms of cytochrome-P450 isoenzymes 2C9, 2C19 and 2D6 on plasma concentrations and clinical effects of antidepressants in a naturalistic clinical setting. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 60 329-336.
52. C Kawanishi, S Lundgren, H Agren, et al. (2004) Increased incidence of CYP2D6 gene duplication in patients with persistent mood disorders: ultrarapid metabolism of antidepressants as a cause of nonresponse. A pilot study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 59 803-807.
53. MS Lennard, JH Silas, S Freestone, et al. (1982) Oxidation phenotype—a major determinant of metoprolol metabolism and response. N Engl J Med 307 1558-1560.
54. MS Lennard, JH Silas, S Freestone, et al. (1982) Defective metabolism of metoprolol in poor hydroxylators of debrisoquine. Br J Clin Pharmacol 14 301-303.
55. J Kirchheiner, C Heesch, S Bauer, et al. (2004) Impact of the ultrarapid metabolizer genotype of cytochrome P450 2D6 on metoprolol pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 76 302-312.
56. H Wuttke, T Rau, R Heide, et al. (2002) Increased frequency of cytochrome P450 2D6 poor metabolizers among patients with metoprolol-associated adverse effects. Clin Pharmacol Ther 72 429-437.
57. T Rau, R Heide, K Bergmann, et al. (2002) Effect of the CYP2D6 genotype on metoprolol metabolism persists during long-term treatment. Pharmacogenetics 12 465-472.
58. I Zineh, AL Beitelshees, A Gaedigk, et al. (2004) Pharmacokinetics and CYP2D6 genotypes do not predict metoprolol adverse events or efficacy in hypertension. Clin Pharmacol Ther 76 536-544.
59. R Fux, K Morike, AM Prohmer, et al. (2005) Impact of CYP2D6 genotype on adverse effects during treatment with metoprolol: a prospective clinical study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 78 378-387.
60. G Neugebauer and P Neubert (1991) Metabolism of carvedilol in man. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 16 257-260.
61. HH Zhou and AJ Wood (1995) Stereoselective disposition of carvedilol is determined by CYP2D6. Clin Pharmacol Ther 57 518-524.
62. DW Graff, KM Williamson, JA Pieper, et al. (2001) Effect of fluoxetine on carvedilol pharmacokinetics, CYP2D6 activity, and autonomic balance in heart failure patients. J Clin Pharmacol 41 97-106.
63. H Takahashi, T Kashima, S Nomoto, et al. (1998) Comparisons between in-vitro and in-vivo metabolism of (S)-warfarin: catalytic activities of cDNA-expressed CYP2C9, its Leu359 variant and their mixture versus unbound clearance in patients with the corresponding CYP2C9 genotypes. Pharmacogenetics 8 365-373.
64. H Takahashi, T Kashima, Y Nomizo, et al. (1998) Metabolism of warfarin enantiomers in Japanese patients with heart disease having different CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 genotypes. Clin Pharmacol Ther 63 519-528.
65. MG Scordo, V Pengo, E Spina, et al. (2002) Influence of CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 genetic polymorphisms on warfarin maintenance dose and metabolic clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther 72 702-710.
66. R Loebstein, H Yonath, D Peleg, et al. (2001) Interindividual variability in sensitivity to warfarin—nature or nurture? Clin Pharmacol Ther 70 159-164.
67. C Verstuyft, S Morin, A Robert, et al. (2001) Early acenocoumarol overanticoagulation among cytochrome P450 2C9 poor metabolizers. Pharmacogenetics 11 735-737.
68. HH Thijssen and B Ritzen (2003) Acenocoumarol pharmacokinetics in relation to cytochrome P450 2C9 genotype. Clin Pharmacol Ther 74 61-68.
69. HH Thijssen, MJ Drittij, LM Vervoort, et al. (2001) Altered pharmacokinetics of R- and S-acenocoumarol in a subject heterozygous for CYP2C93. Clin Pharmacol Ther 70 292-298.
70. LE Visser, M Vliet, RHN Schaik, et al. (2004) The risk of overanticoagulation in patients with cytochrome P450 2C92 and CYP2C93 alleles on acenocoumarol or phenprocoumon. Pharmacogenetics 14 27-33.
71. D Tassies, C Freire, J Pijoan, et al. (2002) Pharmacogenetics of acenocoumarol: cytochrome P450 CYP2C9 polymorphisms influence dose requirements and stability of anticoagulation. Haematologica 87 1185-1191.
72. LE Visser, RH Schaik, M Vliet, et al. (2004) The risk of bleeding complications in patients with cytochrome P450 CYP2C92 or CYP2C93 alleles on acenocoumarol or phenprocoumon. Thromb Haemost 92 61-66.
73. S Rost, A Fregin, V Ivaskevicius, et al. (2004) Mutations in VKORC1 cause warfarin resistance and multiple coagulation factor deficiency type 2. Nature 427 537-541.
74. C Geisen, M Watzka, K Sittinger, et al. (2005) VKORC1 haplotypes and their impact on the inter-individual and inter-ethnical variability of oral anticoagulation. Thromb Haemost 94 773-779.
75. MJ Rieder, AP Reiner, BF Gage, et al. (2005) Effect of VKORC1 haplotypes on transcriptional regulation and warfarin dose. N Engl J Med 352 2285-2293.
76. PH Reitsma, JF van der Heijden, AP Groot, et al. (2005) A C1173T dimorphism in the VKORC1 gene determines coumarin sensitivity and bleeding risk. PLoS Med 2 e312.
77. A Osman, C Enstrom, K Arbring, et al. (2006) Main haplotypes and mutational analysis of vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKORC1) in a Swedish population: a retrospective analysis of case records. J Thromb Haemost 4 1723-1729.
78. L Quteineh, C Verstuyft, C Descot, et al. (2005) Vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKORC1) genetic polymorphism is associated to oral anticoagulant overdose. Thromb Haemost 94 690-691.
79. U Klotz, M Schwab and G Treiber (2004) CYP2C19 polymorphism and proton pump inhibitors. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 95 2-8.
80. M Schwab, E Schaeffeler, U Klotz, et al. (2004) CYP2C19 polymorphism is a major predictor of treatment failure in white patients by use of lansoprazole-based quadruple therapy for eradication of Helicobacter pylori. Clin Pharmacol Ther 76 201-209.
81. T Andersson, J Holmberg, K Rohss, et al. (1998) Pharmacokinetics and effect on caffeine metabolism of the proton pump inhibitors, omeprazole, lansoprazole, and pantoprazole. Br J Clin Pharmacol 45 369-375.
82. SA Chong, EC Tan, CH Tan, et al. (2003) Polymorphisms of dopamine receptors and tardive dyskinesia among Chinese patients with schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet 116 51-54.
83. T Furuta, N Shirai, M Takashima, et al. (2001) Effects of genotypic differences in CYP2C19 status on cure rates for Helicobacter pylori infection by dual therapy with rabeprazole plus amoxicillin. Pharmacogenetics 11 341-348.
84. T Furuta, N Shirai, M Kodaira, et al. (2007) Pharmacogenomics-based tailored versus standard therapeutic regimen for eradication of H. pylori. Clin Pharmacol Ther 81 521-528.
85. PJ Wedlund (2000) The CYP2C19 enzyme polymorphism. Pharmacology 61 174-183.
86. T Furuta, N Shirai, F Watanabe, et al. (2002) Effect of cytochrome P4502C19 genotypic differences on cure rates for gastroesophageal reflux disease by lansoprazole. Clin Pharmacol Ther 72 453-460.
87. M Kawamura, S Ohara, T Koike, et al. (2003) The effects of lansoprazole on erosive reflux oesophagitis are influenced by CYP2C19 polymorphism. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 17 965-973.
88. M Kawamura, S Ohara, T Koike, et al. (2007) Cytochrome P450 2C19 polymorphism influences the preventive effect of lansoprazole on the recurrence of erosive reflux esophagitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 22 222-226.
89. S Rendic (2002) Summary of information on human CYP enzymes: human P450 metabolism data. Drug Metab Rev 34 83-448.
90. SS Brenner, C Herrlinger, K Dilger, et al. (2003) Influence of age and cytochrome P450 2C9 genotype on the steady-state disposition of diclofenac and celecoxib. Clin Pharmacokinet 42 283-292.
91. P Dorado, R Berecz, MJ Norberto, et al. (2003) CYP2C9 genotypes and diclofenac metabolism in Spanish healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 59 221-225.
92. J Kirchheiner, I Meineke, N Steinbach, et al. (2003) Pharmacokinetics of diclofenac and inhibition of cyclooxygenases 1 and 2: no dependence from the CYP2C9 genetic polymorphism in humans. Br J Clin Pharmacol 55 51-61.
93. Ü Yasar, E Eliasson, C Forslund-Bergengren, et al. (2001) The role of CYP2C9 genotype in the metabolism of diclofenac in vivo and in vitro. Pharmacol Toxicol 89 106.
94. Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group (1998) Tamoxifen for early breast cancer: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet 351 1451-1467.
95. Z Desta, BA Ward, NV Soukhova, et al. (2004) Comprehensive evaluation of tamoxifen sequential biotransformation by the human cytochrome P450 system in vitro: prominent roles for CYP3A and CYP2D6. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 310 1062-1075.
96. JK Coller, N Krebsfaenger, K Klein, et al. (2002) The influence of CYP2B6, CYP2C9 and CYP2D6 genotypes on the formation of the potent antioestrogen Z-4-hydroxy-tamoxifen in human liver. Br J Clin Pharmacol 54 157-167.
97. S Borges, Z Desta, L Li, et al. (2006) Quantitative effect of CYP2D6 genotype and inhibitors on tamoxifen metabolism: implication for optimization of breast cancer treatment. Clin Pharmacol Ther 80 61-74.
98. MP Goetz, SK Knox, VJ Suman, et al. (2007) The impact of cytochrome P450 2D6 metabolism in women receiving adjuvant tamoxifen. Breast Cancer Res Treat 101 113-121.
99. W Schroth, L Antoniadou, P Fritz, et al. (2007) Breast cancer treatment outcome with adjuvant tamoxifen relative to patient CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genotypes. J Clin Oncol 25 5147-5149.
100. SC Sim, C Risinger, ML Dahl, et al. (2006) A common novel CYP2C19 gene variant causes ultrarapid drug metabolism relevant for the drug response to proton pump inhibitors and antidepressants. Clin Pharmacol Ther 79 103-113.
101. MP Goetz, JM Rae, VJ Suman, et al. (2005) Pharmacogenetics of tamoxifen biotransformation is associated with clinical outcomes of efficacy and hot flashes. J Clin Oncol 23 9312-9318.
102. SA Nowell, J Ahn, JM Rae, et al. (2005) Association of genetic variation in tamoxifen-metabolizing enzymes with overall survival and recurrence of disease in breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res Treat 91 249-258.
103. PP Wegman and S Wingren (2005) CYP2D6 variants and the prediction of tamoxifen response in randomized patients: author response. Breast Cancer Res 7 E7.
104. PE Goss, JN Ingle, S Martino, et al. (2005) Randomized trial of letrozole following tamoxifen as extended adjuvant therapy in receptor-positive breast cancer: updated findings from NCIC CTG MA.17. J Natl Cancer Inst 97 1262-1271.
105. A Teml, E Schaeffeler, KR Herrlinger, et al. (2007) Thiopurine treatment in inflammatory bowel disease: clinical pharmacology and implication of pharmacogenetically guided dosing. Clin Pharmacokinet 46 187-208.
106. L Somerville, EY Krynetski, NF Krynetskaia, et al. (2003) Structure and dynamics of thioguanine-modified duplex DNA. J Biol Chem 278 1005-1011.
107. RM Weinshilboum and SL Sladek (1980) Mercaptopurine pharmacogenetics: monogenic inheritance of erythrocyte thiopurine methyltransferase activity. Am J Hum Genet 32 651-662.
108. E Schaeffeler, M Eichelbaum, W Reinisch, et al. (2006) Three novel thiopurine S-methyltransferase allelic variants (TPMT20, 21, 22)—association with decreased enzyme function. Hum Mutat 27 976.
109. E Schaeffeler, C Fischer, D Brockmeier, et al. (2004) Comprehensive analysis of thiopurine S-methyltransferase phenotype-genotype correlation in a large population of German-Caucasians and identification of novel TPMT variants. Pharmacogenetics 14 407-417.
110. M Schwab, E Schaeffeler, C Marx, et al. (2001) Shortcoming in the diagnosis of TPMT deficiency in a patient with Crohn's disease using phenotyping only. Gastroenterology 121 498-499.
111. L Lennard, TS Chew and JS Lilleyman (2001) Human thiopurine methyltransferase activity varies with red blood cell age. Br J Clin Pharmacol 52 539-546.
112. HW Xin, C Fischer, M Schwab, et al. (2005) Thiopurine S-methyltransferase as a target for drug interactions. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 61 395-398.
113. H Xin, C Fischer, M Schwab, et al. (2005) Effects of aminosalicylates on thiopurine S-methyltransferase activity: an ex vivo study in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 21 1105-1109.
114. K Dilger, E Schaeffeler, M Lukas, et al. (2007) Monitoring of thiopurine methyltransferase activity in postsurgical patients with Crohn's disease during 1 year of treatment with azathioprine or mesalazine. Ther Drug Monit 29 1-5.
115. WE Evans, YY Hon, L Bomgaars, et al. (2001) Preponderance of thiopurine S-methyltransferase deficiency and heterozygosity among patients intolerant to mercaptopurine or azathioprine. J Clin Oncol 19 2293-2301.
116. JF Colombel, N Ferrari, H Debuysere, et al. (2000) Genotypic analysis of thiopurine S-methyltransferase in patients with Crohn's disease and severe myelosuppression during azathioprine therapy. Gastroenterology 118 1025-1030.
117. L Sebbag, P Boucher, P Davelu, et al. (2000) Thiopurine S-methyltransferase gene polymorphism is predictive of azathioprine-induced myelosuppression in heart transplant recipients. Transplantation 69 1524-1527.
118. MV Relling, ML Hancock, GK Rivera, et al. (1999) Mercaptopurine therapy intolerance and heterozygosity at the thiopurine S-methyltransferase gene locus. J Natl Cancer Inst 91 2001-2008.
119. AJ Black, HL McLeod, HA Capell, et al. (1998) Thiopurine methyltransferase genotype predicts therapy-limiting severe toxicity from azathioprine. Ann Intern Med 129 716-718.
120. WE Evans, JH Rodman, MV Relling, et al. (1991) Concept of maximum tolerated systemic exposure and its application to phase I-II studies of anticancer drugs. Med Pediatr Oncol 19 153-159.
121. BA Kaskas, E Louis, U Hindorf, et al. (2003) Safe treatment of thiopurine S-methyltransferase deficient Crohn's disease patients with azathioprine. Gut 52 140-142.
122. L Lennard, JS Lilleyman, J Van Loon, et al. (1990) Genetic variation in response to 6-mercaptopurine for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Lancet 336 225-229.
123. M Stanulla, E Schaeffeler, T Flohr, et al. (2005) Thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) genotype and early treatment response to mercaptopurine in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Jama 293 1485-1489.
124. ML Maitland, K Vasisht and MJ Ratain (2006) TPMT, UGT1A1 and DPYD: genotyping to ensure safer cancer therapy? Trends Pharmacol Sci 27 432-437.
125. S Zimm, JM Collins, D O'Neill, et al. (1983) Inhibition of first-pass metabolism in cancer chemotherapy: interaction of 6-mercaptopurine and allopurinol. Clin Pharmacol Ther 34 810-817.
126. DT Kennedy, MS Hayney and KD Lake (1996) Azathioprine and allopurinol: the price of an avoidable drug interaction. Ann Pharmacother 30 951-954.
127. GD Heggie, JP Sommadossi, DS Cross, et al. (1987) Clinical pharmacokinetics of 5-fluorouracil and its metabolites in plasma, urine, and bile. Cancer Res 47 2203-2206.
128. RB Diasio, TL Beavers and JT Carpenter (1988) Familial deficiency of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase. Biochemical basis for familial pyrimidinemia and severe 5-fluorouracil—induced toxicity. J Clin Invest 81 47-51.
129. MC Etienne, JL Lagrange, O Dassonville, et al. (1994) Population study of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase in cancer patients. J Clin Oncol 12 2248-2253.
130. R Soong and RB Diasio (2005) Advances and challenges in fluoropyrimidine pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics. Pharmacogenomics 6 835-847.
131. A Morel, M Boisdron-Celle, L Fey, et al. (2006) Clinical relevance of different dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase gene single nucleotide polymorphisms on 5-fluorouracil tolerance. Mol Cancer Ther 5 2895-2904.
132. K Chansky, J Benedetti and JS Macdonald (2005) Differences in toxicity between men and women treated with 5-fluorouracil therapy for colorectal carcinoma. Cancer 103 1165-1171.
133. K Robien, A Boynton and CM Ulrich (2005) Pharmacogenetics of folate-related drug targets in cancer treatment. Pharmacogenomics 6 673-689.
134. N Frickhofen, FJ Beck, B Jung, et al. (2002) Capecitabine can induce acute coronary syndrome similar to 5-fluorouracil. Ann Oncol 13 797-801.
135. ES Collie-Duguid, MC Etienne, G Milano, et al. (2000) Known variant DPYD alleles do not explain DPD deficiency in cancer patients. Pharmacogenetics 10 217-223.
136. RA Fleming, G Milano, A Thyss, et al. (1992) Correlation between dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase activity in peripheral mononuclear cells and systemic clearance of fluorouracil in cancer patients. Cancer Res 52 2899-2902.
137. AB Van Kuilenburg, H Van Lenthe, A Tromp, et al. (2000) Pitfalls in the diagnosis of patients with a partial dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase deficiency. Clin Chem 46 9-17.
138. AB van Kuilenburg, JW Baars, R Meinsma, et al. (2003) Lethal 5-fluorouracil toxicity associated with a novel mutation in the dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase gene. Ann Oncol 14 341-342.
139. M Schwab, UM Zanger, C Marx, et al. (2008) for the German 5-FU Toxicity Study Group. Role of genetic and nongenetic factors for fluorouracil treatment-related severe toxicity: a prospective clinical trial by the German 5-FU Toxicity Study Group. J Clin Oncol 26 2131-2138.
140. K Sai, M Saeki, Y Saito, et al. (2004) UGT1A1 haplotypes associated with reduced glucuronidation and increased serum bilirubin in irinotecan-administered Japanese patients with cancer. Clin Pharmacol Ther 75 501-515.
141. F Innocenti, L Iyer and MJ Ratain (2001) Pharmacogenetics of anticancer agents: lessons from amonafide and irinotecan. Drug Metab Dispos 29 596-600.
142. K Araki, K Fujita, Y Ando, et al. (2006) Pharmacogenetic impact of polymorphisms in the coding region of the UGT1A1 gene on SN-38 glucuronidation in Japanese patients with cancer. Cancer Sci 97 1255-1259.
143. F Innocenti, SD Undevia, L Iyer, et al. (2004) Genetic variants in the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 gene predict the risk of severe neutropenia of irinotecan. J Clin Oncol 22 1382-1388.
144. K Rothman and S Greenland (1998) Modern Epidemiology 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
145. NA Patsopoulos, AA Analatos and JP Ioannidis (2005) Relative citation impact of various study designs in the health sciences. JAMA 293 2362-2366.
146. R Kaiser, A Hofer, A Grapengiesser, et al. (2003) l-Dopa—induced adverse effects in PD and dopamine transporter gene polymorphism. Neurology 60 1750-1755.
147. JM Drazen, CN Yandava, L Dube, et al. (1999) Pharmacogenetic association between ALOX5 promoter genotype and the response to anti-asthma treatment. Nat Genet 22 168-170.
148. J Poirier, MC Delisle, R Quirion, et al. (1995) Apolipoprotein E4 allele as a predictor of cholinergic deficits and treatment outcome in Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92 12260-12264.
149. M Esteller, J Garcia-Foncillas, E Andion, et al. (2000) Inactivation of the DNA-repair gene MGMT and the clinical response of gliomas to alkylating agents. N Engl J Med 343 1350-1354.
150. F Sesti, GW Abbott, J Wei, et al. (2000) A common polymorphism associated with antibiotic-induced cardiac arrhythmia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97 10613-10618.
151. GE Cooke, PF Bray, JD Hamlington, et al. (1998) PlA2 polymorphism and efficacy of aspirin. Lancet 351 1253.
152. AD Michelson, MI Furman, P Goldschmidt-Clermont, et al. (2000) Platelet GP IIIa Pl(A) polymorphisms display different sensitivities to agonists. Circulation 101 1013-1018.
153. GL Wheeler, GA Braden, PF Bray, et al. (2002) Reduced inhibition by abciximab in platelets with the PlA2 polymorphism. Am Heart J 143 76-82.
154. JA Kuivenhoven, JW Jukema, AH Zwinderman, et al. (1998) The role of a common variant of the cholesteryl ester transfer protein gene in the progression of coronary atherosclerosis. The Regression Growth Evaluation Statin Study Group. N Engl J Med 338 86-93.
155. D Cusi, C Barlassina, T Azzani, et al. (1997) Polymorphisms of alpha-adducin and salt sensitivity in patients with essential hypertension. Lancet 349 1353-1357.
156. S Ueda, PA Meredith, JJ Morton, et al. (1998) ACE (I/D) genotype as a predictor of the magnitude and duration of the response to an ACE inhibitor drug (enalaprilat) in humans. Circulation 98 2148-2153.