Fish Advisories. General Fact Sheet: 2005

Environmental Contaminants in Biota: Interpreting Tissue Concentrations, Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 103-168

  Wenning, Richard J ^a   Martello, Linda ^a   Prusak Daniel, Anne ^a  

^a ENVIRON INTERNATIONAL CORPORATION   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85138368009     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/b10598-4     Document Type: Chapter

References (211)

1. Alaee, M., and R. J. Wenning. 2002. The significance of brominated flame retardants in the environment: current understanding, issues and challenges. Chemosphere 46:579-582.
2. Alaee, M., J. Luross, D. B. Sergeant, D. C. G. Muir, D. M. Whittle, and K. Solomon. 1999. Distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the Canadian environment. Organohalogen Compounds. 40:347-350.
3. Allchin, C. R., R. J. Law, and S. Morris. 1999. Polybrominated diphenylethers in sediments and biota downstream of potential sources in the UK. Environ. Pollut. 105:197-207.
4. Andersson, O., and G. Blomkvist. 1981. Polybrominated aromatic pollutants found in fish in Sweden. Chemosphere 10:1051-1060.
5. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme. (AMAP). 2004. AMAP Assessment 2002: Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Arctic. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway. xvi +310 pp.
6. Arnot, J. A., and F. A. P. C. Gobas. 2006. A review of bioconcentration factor (BCF) and bioaccumulation factor (BAF) assessments for organic chemicals in aquatic organisms. Environ. Rev. 14:257-297.
7. Ashley, C. M., M. G. Simpson, D. M. Holdich, and D. R Bell. 1996. 2, 3, 7, 8-Tetrachloro-Dibenzo-p-Dioxin is a Potent Toxin and Induces Cytochrome P450 in the Crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus. Aquat. Toxicol. 35:157-169.
8. Asplund, L., M. Athanasiadou, A. Sjodin, A. Bergman, and H. Bdrjeson. 1999. Organohalogen substances in muscle, egg and blood from M74 syndrome affected and non-affected Baltic salmon (Salmo salar). Ambio 28:67-76.
9. Bayarri, S., L. T. Baldassarri, N. Iacovella, F. Ferrara, and A. di Domenico. 2001. PCDDs, PCDFs, PCBs and DDE in edible marine species from the Adriatic Sea. Chemosphere 43:601-610.
10. Beckert, D. S., and T. C. Ginn. 2008. Critical evaluation of the sediment effect concentrations for polychlorinated biphenyls. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 4:156-170.
11. Bergman, A., L. Asplund, M. Athanasiadou, E. Jakobsson, and E. K. Wehler. 1999. A Strategy for Chemical Analysis of Halogenated Environmental Pollutants. Organohalogen Compounds. 40:1-4.
12. Bergman, A., M. Athanasiadou, G. Marsh, A. Sjödin, and W. M. Grim III. No date Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers-Environmental Contaminants of Concern. Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, Inc., Andover, MA. Application Note ENV 10.
13. Beyer, A., and M. Biziuk. 2009. Environmental fate and global distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls. In: Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 201, ed. D. M. Whitacre, pp. 137-158. New York: Springer.
14. Bhavsar, S. P., A. Hayton, E. J. Reiner, and D. A. Jackson. 2007. Estimating dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyl toxic equivalents from total polychlorinated biphenyl measurements in fish. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 26:1622-1628.
15. Bhavsar, S. P., E. J. Reiner, A. Hayton, R. Fletcher, and K. MacPherson. 2008a. Converting toxic equivalents (TEQ) of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds in fish from one toxic equivalency factor (TEF) scheme to another. Environ. Int. 34:915-921.
16. Bhavsar, S. P., A. Hayton, and D. A. Jackson. 2008b. Uncertainty analysis of dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls-related toxic equivalents in fish. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 27:997-1005.
17. Bhavsar, S. P., E. Awad, R. Fletcher, A. Hayton, K. M. Somers, T. Kloic, K. MacPherson, and E. J. Reiner. 2008c. Temporal trends and spatial distribution of dioxins and furans in lake trout or lake whitefish from the Canadian Great Lakes. Chemosphere 73(1):158-165.
18. Boening, D. W. 1998. Toxicity of 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin to several ecological receptor groups: a short review. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 39:155-163.
19. Boon, J. P., W. E. Lewis, M. R. Tjoen-A-Choy, C. R. Allchin, R. J. Law, J. De Boer, C. C. Ten Hallers-Tjabbes, and B. N. Zegers. 2002. Levels of polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants in animals representing different trophic levels of the North Sea food Web. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:4025-4032.
20. Braekevelt, E., S. A. Tittlemiert, and G. T. Tomy. 2003. Direct measurement of octanol-water partition coefficients of some environmentally relevant brominated diphenyl ether congeners. Chemosphere 51:563-567.
21. Brown, F. R., J. Winkler, P. Visita, J. Dhaliwal, and M. Petreas. 2006. Levels of PBDEs, PCDDs, PCDFs, and coplanar PCBs in edible fish from California coastal waters. Chemosphere. 64:276-286.
22. Burkhard, L. P., and M. T. Lukasewycz. 2008. Toxicity equivalency values for polychlorinated biphenyl mixtures. Environ. Toxicol. Sci. 27:529-534.
23. Burkhard, L. P., D. D. Endicott, P. M. Cook, K. G. Sappington, and E. L. Winchester. 2003. Evaluation of two methods for prediction of bioaccumulation factors. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37:4626-4634.
24. Burkhard, L. P., P. M. Cook, and M. T. Lukasewycz. 2004. Biota-sediment accumulation factors for polychlorinated biphenyls, dibenzo-p-dioxins, and dibenzofurans in southern Lake Michigan lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush). Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:5297-5305.
25. Burreau, S., Y. Zebühr, D. Broman, and R. Ishaq. 2006. Biomagnification of PBDEs and PCBs in food webs from the Baltic Sea and northern Atlantic Ocean. Sci. Total Environ. 366:659-672.
26. Butler, R. A., M. L. Kelley, W. H. Powell, M. E. Hahn, and R. J. Van Beneden. 2001. An aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) homologue from the soft-shell clam, Mya arenaria: evidence that invertebrate AHR homologues lack 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and beta-naphthoflavone binding. Gene. 278:223-234.
27. Cantrell, S. M., L. H. Lutz, D. E. Tillitt, and M. Hannink. 1996. Embryotoxicity of 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzop-dioxin (TCDD): the embryonic vasculature is a physiological target for TCDD-induced DNA damage and apoptotic cell death in Medaka (Orizias latipes). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 141(1):23-34.
28. Carney, S. A., A. L. Prasch, W. Heideman, and R. E. Peterson. 2006. Understanding dioxin developmental toxicity using the zebrafish model. Birth Defects Res. A Clin. Mol. Teratol. 76:7-18.
29. Cetin, B., and M. Odabasi. 2009. Air-water exchange and dry deposition of polybrominated diphenyl ethers at a coastal site in Izmir Bay, Turkey. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41:785-791.
30. Chiuchiolo, A. L., R. M. Dickhut, M. A. Cochran, and H. W. Ducklow. 2004. Persistent organic pollutants at the base of the Antarctic marine food web. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:3551-3557.
31. CMABFRIP (Chemical Manufacturers Association Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel). 1997. Octabromodiphenyl Oxide (OBDPO): Determination of the water solubility. Wildlife International, Ltd. Project No. 439C-110.
32. Cook, P. M., et al. 2003. Effects of aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediated early life stage toxicity on lake trout populations in Lake Ontario during the 20th century. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37(17):3864-3877.
33. Darnerud, P. O. 2003. Toxic effects of brominated flame retardants in man and in wildlife. Environ. Int. 29:841-853.
34. Darnerud, P. O. 2008. Brominated flame retardants as possible endocrine disruptors. Int. J. Androl. 31:152-160.
35. Davies, M. 1999. Compilation of EU Dioxin Exposure and Health Data Task 7-Ecotoxicology. European Commission DG Environment; UK Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. (DETR). 97/322/3040/DEB/E1.
36. de Boer, J., and M. Denneman. 1998. Polychlorinated diphenyl ethers: origin, analysis, distribution, and toxicity in the marine environment. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 157:131-144.
37. DeVito, M. J., X. Ma, J. G. Babish, M. Menache, and L. S. Birnbaum. 1994. Dose-response relationships in mice following subchronic exposure to 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin: CYP1A1, CYP1A2, estrogen receptor, and protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 124(1):82-90.
38. de Wit, C. A. 2002. An overview of brominated flame retardants in the environment. Chemosphere 46:583-624.
39. de Wit, C. A., M. Alaee, and D. C. G. Muir. 2006. Levels and trends of brominated flame retardants in the Arctic. Chemosphere 64:209-233.
40. Dearfield, K. L., et al. 2005. Ecological risk assessment issues identified during the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s examination of risk assessment practices. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 1:73-76.
41. deBruyn, A. M. H., L. M. Meloche, and C. J. Lowe. 2009. Patterns of bioaccumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyl congeners in marine mussels. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43:3700-3704.
42. Dethlefsen, V., H. Von Westernhagen, and P. Cameron. 1996. Malformations in North sea pelagic fish embryos during the period 1984-1995. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 53:1024-1035.
43. Dodder, N. G., B. Strandberg, and R. A. Hites. 2002. Concentrations and spatial variations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and several organochlorine compounds in fishes from the northeastern United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:146-151.
44. Dyke, P. H., and J. Stratford. 2002. Changes to the TEF schemes can have significant impacts on regulation and management of PCDD/F and PCB. Chemosphere 47:103-116.
45. Easton, M. D. L., D. Luszniak, and E. Von der Geest. 2002. Preliminary examination of contaminant loadings in farmed salmon, wild salmon and commercial salmon feed. Chemosphere 46:1053-1074.
46. Eisenreich, K., S. M. Kelly, and C. L. Rowe. 2009. Latent mortality of juvenile snapping turtles from the Upper Hudson River, New York, exposed maternally and via the diet to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Environ. Sci. Technol. 43:6052-6057.
47. Eisler, R., and A. A. Belisle. 1986. Planar PCB Hazards to Fish, Wildlife, and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review. Biological Report No. 31. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD.
48. Erickson, M. D. 1997. Analytical Chemistry of PCBs, 2nd edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
49. Eriksson, J., N. Green, G. Marsh, and A. Bergman. 2004. Photochemical decomposition of 15 polybrominated diphenyl ether congeners in methanol/water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:3119-3125.
50. European Communities. 2001. European Union Risk Assessment Report. Diphenyl ether, Pentabromo Derivative (Pentabromodiphenyl Ether). CAS No.: 32534-81-9. EINECS No.: 251-084-2. Risk assessment.
51. Final report, August 2000. United Kingdom on behalf of the European Union.
52. European Communities. 2002. European Union Risk Assessment Report. Bis(Pentabromophenyl) Ether. CAS No.: 1163-19-5. EINECS No.: 214-604-9. Risk assessment. Final report, 2002. France and United Kingdom on behalf of the European Union.
53. European Communities. 2003. European Union Risk Assessment Report. Diphenyl Ether, Octabromo Derivative. CAS No.: 32536-52-0. EINECS No.: 251-087-9. Risk assessment. Final Report. France and United Kingdom on behalf of the European Union.
54. Evans, M. S., D. Muir, W. L. Lockhart, G. Stern, M. Ryan, and P. Roach. 2005. Persistent organic pollutants and metals in the freshwater biota of the Canadian Subarctic and Arctic: an overview. Sci. Total Environ. 351-352: 94-147.
55. Fair, P. A., et al. 2007. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in blubber of free-ranging bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) from two southeast Atlantic estuarine areas. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 53:483-494.
56. Finley, B. L., K. T. Connor, and P. K. Scott. 2003. The use of toxic equivalency factor distributions in probabilistic risk assessments for dioxins, furans, and PCBs. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. 66:533-550.
57. Fisk, A. T., et al. 2005. An assessment of the toxicological significance of anthropogenic contaminants in Canadian arctic wildlife. Sci. Total Environ. 351-352:57-93.
58. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2009. Dioxin Analysis Results/Exposure Estimate. http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/FoodContaminantsAdulteration/ChemicalContaminants/DioxinsPCBs/ucm077444.htm.
59. Fuchsman, P. C., T. R. Barber, J. C. Lawton, and K. B. Leigh. 2006. An evaluation of cause-effect relationships between polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations and sediment toxicity to benthic invertebrates. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25:2601-2612.
60. Gauthier, L. T., C. E. Hebert, D. V. C. Weseloh, and R. J. Letcher. 2008. Dramatic changes in the temporal trends of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in herring gull eggs from the Laurentian Great Lakes: 1982-2006. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42:1524-1530.
61. Gewurtz, S. B., et al. 2009. Factors influencing trends of polychlorinated naphthalenes and other dioxin-like compounds in lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) from Lake Ontario, North America (1979-2004). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 28:921-930.
62. Geyer, H. J., et al. 2002. Half-lives of tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta-, and octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in rats, monkeys, and humans: A critical review. Chemosphere 48(6):631-644.
63. Giesy, J. P., and K. Kannan. 1998. Dioxin like and non-dioxin-like toxic effects of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): implications for risk assessment. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 28:511-569.
64. Giesy, J. P., L. A. Feyk, P. D. Jones, K. Kannan, and T. Sanderson. 2003. Topic 4.8. Review of endocrinedisrupting chemicals in birds. Pure Appl. Chem. 75:2287-2303.
65. Giesy, J. P., P. D. Jones, K. Kannan, J. L. Newsted, D. E. Tillitt, and L. L. Williams. 2002. Effects of chronic dietary exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations to 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on survival, growth, reproduction and biochemical responses of female rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquat. Toxicol. 59:35-53.
66. Gobas, F. A. P. C., K. E. Clark, W. Y. Shiu, and D. Mackay. 1989. Bioconcentration of polybrominated benzenes and biphenyls and related superhydrophobic chemicals in fish: Role of bioavailability and elimination in the feces. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 8:231-245.
67. Gómara, B., et al. 2005. Levels and trends of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxinlike polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Spanish commercial fish and shellfish products, 1995-2003. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53:8406-8413.
68. Great Lakes National Program Office (GLNPO). 2009. Great Lakes Fish Monitoring Program. http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/monitoring/fish/index.html (accessed August 11, 2009).
69. Grimwood, M. J., and T. J. Dobbs. 1995. A review of the aquatic ecotoxicology of polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins and dibenzofurans. Environ. Toxicol. Water Qual. 10:57-75.
70. Guengerich, F. P., and D. C. Liebler. 1985. Enzymatic activation of chemicals to toxic metabolities. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 14(3):259-307.
71. Guerrero, N. R. V. 2007. Predicting the uptake and bioaccumulation of organic pollutants from natural sediments. In: Environmental Pollution: New Research, ed. R. H. Plattenberg, pp. 141-185. New York, NY: Nova Science Pub.
72. Guiney, P. D., R. M. Smolowitz, R. E. Peterson, and J. J. Stegeman. 1997. Correlation of 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin induction of cytochrome P4501A in vascular endothelium with toxicity in early life stages of lake trout. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 143:256-273.
73. Gustafsson, K., M. Björk, S. Burreau, and M. Gilek. 1999. Bioaccumulation kinetics of brominated flame retardants (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) in blue mussel (Mytilus edulis). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 18:1218-1224.
74. Hale, R. C., M. Alaee, J. B. Manchester-Neesvig, H. M. Stapleton, and M. G. Ikonomou. 2003. Polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants in the North American environment. Environ. Int. 29:771-779.
75. Hale, R. C., M. J. La Guardia, E. Harvey, and T. M. Mainor. 2002. Potential role of fire retardant-treated polyurethane foam as a source of brominated diphenyl ethers to the US environment. Chemosphere 46:729-735.
76. Hale, R. C., M. J. La Guardia, E. P. Harvey, T. M. Mainor, W. H. Duff, and M. O. Gaylor. 2001. Polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants in Virginia freshwater fishes (USA). Environ. Sci. Technol. 35:4585-4591.
77. Hamers, T., et al. 2006. In vitro profiling of the endocrine-disrupting potency of brominated flame retardants. Toxicol. Sci. 92:157-173.
78. Hardy, M. L. 2002. A comparison of the properties of the major commercial PBDPO/PBDE product to those of major PBB and PCB products. Chemosphere 46:717-729.
79. Hawker, D. W., and D. W. Connell. 1988. Octanol-water partition coefficients of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners. Environ. Sci. Technol. 22:382-387.
80. Heiden, T. K., R. J. Hutz, and M. J. Carvan. 2005. Accumulation, tissue distribution, and maternal transfer of dietary 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin: impacts on reproductive success of zebrafish. Toxicol. Sci. 87:497-507.
81. Hites, R. A., J. A. Foran, S. J. Schwager, B. A. Knuth, M. C. Hamilton, and D. O. Carpenter. 2004. Global assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in farmed and wild salmon. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:4945-4949.
82. Holden, A., J. She, M. Tanner, S. Lunder, R. Sharp, and K. Hooper. 2003. PBDEs in the San Francisco Bay Area: Measurements in fish. Organohalogen Compounds. 61:255-258.
83. Hooper, K., and T. A. McDonald. 2000. The BDEs: An emerging environmental challenge and another reason for breast-milk monitoring programs. Environ. Health Perspect. 108:387-392.
84. Hornbuckle, K. C., D. L. Carlson, D. L. Swackhammer, J. E. Baker, and S. J. Eisenreich. 2006. Polychlorinated biphenyls in the Great Lakes. In: Environmental Pollution: New Research, ed. R. A. Hites, pp. 13-71. Germany: Springer.
85. Hornung, M. W., E. W. Zabel, and R. E. Peterson. 1996. Toxic equivalency factors of polybrominated dibenzop-dioxin, dibenzofuran, biphenyl, and polyhalogenated diphenyl ether congeners based on rainbow trout early life stage mortality. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 140:227-234.
86. Hsieh, D. P. H., T. E. McKone, F. Chiao, R. C. Currie, and L. Kleinschmidt. 1994. Final Draft Report: Intermedia Transfer Factors for Contaminants Found at Hazardous Waste Sites. November. Prepared for the Office of Scientific Affairs, Department of Toxic Substances Control, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento.
87. Hua, I., N. Kang, C. T. Jafvert, and J. R. Fábrega-Duque. 2003. Heterogeneous photochemical reactions of decabromodiphenyl ether. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 22:798-804.
88. Iguchi, T., H. Watanabe, and Y. Katsu. 2001. Developmental effects of estrogenic agents on mice, fish, and frogs: A mini review. Horm Behav. 40(2):248-251.
89. Ikonomou, M. G., S. Rayne, and R. F. Addison. 2000. Exponential increases of the brominated flame retardants, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, in the Canadian Arctic from 1981 to 2000. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:1886-1892.
90. Ikonomou, M. G., S. Rayne, and R. F. Addison. 2002. Exponential increases of the brominated flame retardants, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, in the Canadian Arctic from 1981 to 2000. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:1886-1892.
91. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). 1989. No. 209.
92. Isosaari, P., A. Hallikainen, H. Kiviranta, P. J. Vuorinen, R. Parmanne, J. Koistinen, and T. Vartiainen. 2006. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans, biphenyls, naphthalenes and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the edible fish caught from the Baltic Sea and lakes in Finland. Environ. Pollut. 141:213-225.
93. Jansson, B., R. Andersson, A. Lillemor, et al. 1993. Chlorinated and brominated persistent organic compounds in biological samples from the environment. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12(7):1163-1174.
94. Jofre, M. B., and W. H. Karasov. 2008. Effect of mono-ortho and di-ortho substituted polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners on leopard frog survival and sexual development. Chemosphere 70:1609-1619.
95. Johnson, A., and N. Olson. 2001. Analysis and occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Washington State freshwater fish. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 41:339-344.
96. Johnson, W. W., and M. T. Finley. 1980. Handbook of Acute Toxicity of Chemicals to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates. Summaries of toxicity Tests Conducted at Columbia National Fisheries Research Laboratory. 1965-78. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. Resource Publication 137.
97. Johnson-Restrepo, B., K. Kannan, R. Addink, and D. H. Adams. 2005. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls in a marine food web of coastal Florida. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39:8243-8250.
98. Jorgensen, E. H., M. M. Vijayan, J. E-A. Killie, N. Aluru, O. Aas-Hansen, and A. Maule. 2006. Toxicokinetics and effects of PCBs in Arctic fish: A review of studies on Arctic charr. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. 69:37-52.
99. Kannan, K., E. Perrotta, N. J. Thomas, and K. M. Aldous. 2007. A comparative analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls in southern sea otters that died of infectious diseases and noninfectious causes. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 53:293-302.
100. Kannan, K., K. Hilscherova, T. Imagawa, N. Yamashita, L. L. Williams, and J. P. Giesy. 2001. Polychlorinated naphthalenes, -biphenyls, -dibenzo-p-dioxins, and -dibenzofurans in double-crested cormorants and herring gulls from Michigan waters of the Great Lakes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35:441-447.
101. Karchner, S. I., S. W. Kennedy, S. Trudeau, and M. E. Hahn. 2000. Towards molecular understanding of species differences in dioxin sensitivity: Initial characterization of Ah receptor cDNAs in birds and an amphibian. Mar. Environ. Res. 50:51-56.
102. Kelly, B. C., M. G. Ikonomou, J. D. Blair, and F. A. Gobas. 2008. Bioaccumulation behaviour of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in a Canadian Arctic marine food web. Sci. Total Environ. 401:60-72.
103. Khan, I. A. and P. Thomas. 2006. PCB congener-specific disruption of reproductive neuroendocrine function in Atlantic croaker. Mar. Environ. Res. 62:S25-S28.
104. Kierkegaard, A., L. Balk, U. Tjarnlund, C. de Wit, and B. Jansson. 1999. Dietary uptake and biological effects of decabromo biphenyl ether in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus myskiss). Environ. Sci. Technol. 33:1612-1617.
105. Kitamura, K., T. Sakurai, J-W. Choi, J. Kobayashi, Y. Imaizumi, N. Suzuki, and M. Morita. 2009. Particle-sizefractioned transfer of dioxins from sediments to water columns by resuspension process. Environ. Pollut. 157:2159-2165.
106. Kiviranta, H., T. Vartiainen, R. Parmanne, A. Hallikainen, and J. Koistinen. 2003. PCDD/Fs and PCBs in Baltic herring during the 1990s. Chemosphere 50:1201-1216.
107. Kramer, C. Y. 1956. Extension of multiple range tests to group means with unequal numbers of replications. Biometrics 12:307-310.
108. Kruskal, W. H. 1952. A nonparametric test for the several sample problem. Ann. Math. Stat. 23:525-540.
109. Kruskal, W. H., and W. A. Wallis. 1952. Use of ranks in one-criterion variance analysis. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 47:583-621.
110. La Guardia, M. J., R. C. Hale, and E. Harvey. 2006. Detailed polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congener composition of the widely used penta-, octa-, and deca-PBDE technical flame-retardant mixtures. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40:6247-6254.
111. Law, K., et al. 2006. Bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of some brominated flame retardants in a Lake Winnipeg (Canada) food web. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25:2177-2186.
112. Legler, J., and A. Brouwer. 2003. Are brominated flame retardants endocrine disruptors? Environ. Int. 29:879-885.
113. Leney, J. L., K. G. Drouillard, and G. D. Haffner. 2006. Metamorphosis increases biotransformation of polychlorinated biphenyls: a comparative study of polychlorinated biphenyl metabolism in green frogs (Rana clamitans) and leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) at various life stages. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25:2971-2980.
114. Lerner, D. T., B. T. Bjornsson, and S. D. McCormick. 2007. Effects of aqueous exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (Aroclor 1254) on physiology and behavior of smolt development of Atlantic salmon. Aquat. Toxicol. 81:329-336.
115. Levene, H. 1960. Robust tests for the equality of variance. In Contributions to Probability and Statistics, ed. I. Olkin, pp. 278-292. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
116. Loganathan, B. G., et al. 1995. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29:1832-1838.
117. Lohmann, R., J. K. MacFarlane, and P. M. Gshwend. 2005. Importance of black carbon to sorption of native PAHs, PCBs, and PCDDs in Boston and New York harbor sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39: 141-148.
118. Loonen, H., C. van de Guchte, J. R. Parsons, P. De Voogt, and H. A. Govers. 1996. Ecological hazard assessment of dioxins: hazards to organisms at different levels of aquatic food webs (fish-eating birds and mammals, fish and invertebrates). Sci. Total Environ. 182:93-103.
119. Luross, J. M., et al. 2002. Spatial and temporal distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls in lake trout from the Laurentian Great Lakes. Chemosphere. 46:665-673.
120. Luthe, G., J. A. Jacobus, and L. W. Robertson. 2008. Receptor interactions by polybrominated diphenyl ethers versus polychlorinated biphenyls: A theoretical structure-activity assessment. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 25:202-210.
121. MacGregor, J. A., and W. B. Nixon. 1997. Pentabromodiphenyl oxide (PeBDPO): Determination of n-octanol/water partition coefficient. Wildlife International, Ltd. Project No. 439C-108.
122. Manchester-Neesvig, J. B., K. Valters, and W. C. Sonzogni. 2001. Comparison of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Lake Michigan salmonids. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35:1072-1077.
123. Mandal, P. K. 2005. Dioxin: a review of its environmental effects and its aryl hydrocarbon receptor biology. J. Comp. Physiol. 175:221-230.
124. Mann, H. B., and D. R. Whitney. 1947. On a test of whether one of two random variables is stochastically larger than the other. Ann. Math. Stat. 18:50-60.
125. Matthews, V., O. Päpke, and C. Gaus. 2008. PCDD/Fs and PCBs in seafood species from Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 57:392-402.
126. Mayer, F. L., P. M. Mehrle, and H. O. Sanders. 1977. Residue dynamics and biological effects of polychlorinated biphenyls in aquatic organisms. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5:501-511.
127. McDonald, T. A. 2002. A perspective on the potential health risks of PBDEs. Chemosphere 46:745-755.
128. Mehrle, W., Hampp, R., Zimmermann, U., and Schwan, H. P. 1988. Mapping of the field distribution around dielectrophoretically aligned cells by means of small particles as field probes. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Biomembranes 939(3):561-568.
129. Micheletti, C., T. Lovato, A. Critto, R. Pastres, and A. Marcomini. 2008. Spatially distributed ecological risk for fish of a coastal food web exposed to dioxins. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 27:1217-1225.
130. Mizukawa, K., H. Takada, I. Takeuchi, T. Ikemoto, K. Omori, and K. Tsuchiya. 2009. Bioconcentration and biomagnification of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) through lower-trophic-level coastal marine food web. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 58:1217-1224.
131. Muirhead, E. K., A. D. Skillman, S. E. Hook, and I. R. Schultz. 2006. Oral exposure of PBDE-47 in fish: toxicokinetics and reproductive effects in Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes) and fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). Environ. Sci. Toxicol. 40:523-528.
132. Nebert, D. W., Puga, A., and Vasiliou, V. 1993. Role of the Ah receptor and the dioxin-inducible [Ah] gene battery in toxicity, cancer, and signal transduction. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. June 23;685:624-640.
133. Nebert, D. W., A. L. Roe, M. Z. Dieter, W. A. Solis, Y. Yang, and T. P. Dalton. 2000. Role of the aromatic hydrocarbon receptor and [Ah] gene battery in the oxidative stress response, cell cycle control, and apoptosis. Biochem. Pharmacol. 59:65-85.
134. Niimi, A. J. 1996. PCBs in aquatic organisms. In: Environmental Contaminants in Wildlife. Interpreting Tissue Concentrations, eds. W. N. Beyer, G. H. Heinz, and A. W. Redmon-Norwood, pp. 117-152. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
135. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). 2000. Technical Support Document for Exposure Assessment and Stochastic Analysis. September. Appendix H. Fish Bioconcentration Factors. Department of Toxic Substances Control, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento.
136. Ohta, S., et al. 2002. Comparison of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in fish, vegetables, and meats and levels in human milk of nursing women in Japan. Chemosphere 46:689-696.
137. Olsen, A. R., B. D. Snyder, L. L Stahl, and J. L. Pitt. 2009. Study design for lakes and reservoirs in the United States to assess contaminants in fish tissue. Environ. Monit. Assess. 150:91-100.
138. Ontario Ministry of the Environment (MOE). 2009. Sport Fish Contaminant Monitoring Program, Environmental Monitoring and Reporting Branch, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/en/water/fishguide/index.php (accessed August 11, 2009).
139. Opperheizun, A. 1986. Bioconcentration of hydrophobic chemicals in fish. In Aquatic Toxicology and Environmental Fate. Ninth Volume, ASTM STP 921, eds. T. M. Poston and R. Purdy, pp. 304-315. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.
140. Oros, D. R., D. Hoover, F. Rodigari, D. Crane, and J. Sericano. 2005. Levels and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in water, surface sediments, and bivalves from the San Francisco Estuary. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39:33-41.
141. Palm, A., I. T. Cousins, D. Mackay, M. Tysklind, C. Metcalfe, and M. Alaee. 2002. Assessing the environmental fate of chemicals of emerging concern: a case study of the polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Environ. Pollut. 117:195-213.
142. Pandelova, M., B. Henkelmann, O. Roots, M. Simm, L. Järv, E. Benfenati, and K. W. Schramm. 2008. Levels of PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCB in Baltic fish of different age and gender. Chemosphere 71:369-378.
143. Pena-Abaurrea, M., et al. 2009. Anthropogenic and naturally-produced organobrominated compounds in bluefin tuna from the Mediterranean Sea. Chemosphere 76:1477-1482.
144. Poland, A., and J. C. Knutson. 1982. 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and related halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons: examination of the mechanism of toxicity. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 22:517-554.
145. Portmann, J. E., and K. W. Wilson. 1971. The Toxicity of 140 Substances to the Brown Shrimp and Other Marine Animals. Ministry Agriculture Fisheries and Food Laboratories, England. Shellfish Information Leaflet No 22.
146. Quakenbush, L. T. 2007. Polybrominated diphenyl ether compounds in ringed, bearded, spotted, and ribbon seals from the Alaskan Bering Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 54:232-236.
147. Raff, J. D., and R. A. Hites. 2007. Deposition versus photochemical removal of PBDEs from Lake Superior Air. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41:6725-6731.
148. Rahman, F., K. H. Langford, M. D. Srimshaw, and J. N. Lester. 2001. Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants. Sci. Total Environ. 275:1-17.
149. Rankouhi, T. R., J. T. Sanderson, I. van Holsteijn, C. Van Leeuwen, A. D. Vethaak, and M. Van den Berg. 2004. Effects of natural and synthetic estrogens and various environmental contaminants on vitellogenesis in fish primary hepatocytes: comparison of bream (Abramis brama) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). Toxicol. Sci. 81:90-102.
150. Rayne, S., M. G. Ikonomou, P. S. Ross, G. M. Ellis, and L. G. Barrett-Lennard. 2004. PBDEs, PBBs, and PCNs in three communities of free-ranging killer whales (Orcinus orca) from the northeastern Pacific Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:4293-4299.
151. Reyes, G. G., J. M. Verdugo, D. Cassin, and R. Carvajal. 2003. Pollution by polychlorinated biphenyls in an estuary of the Gulf of California. Their toxicity and bioaccumulation in shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 46:959-963.
152. Rice, C. P., S. M. Chernyak, L. Begnoche, R. Quintal, and J. Hickey. 2002. Comparison of PBDE composition and concentration in fish collected from the Detroit River, MI and Des Plaines River, IL. Chemosphere 49:731-737.
153. Ritter, L., K. R. Solomon, and J. Forget. 1995. An Assessment Report on DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, Toxaphene, Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Dioxins, and Furans for the International Program on Chemical Safety, Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Submitted to the Second Meeting of the ISG, Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety, ISG/96.5B.
154. Ross, P. S., C. M. Couillard, M. G. Ikonomou, S. C. Johannessen, M. Lebeuf, R. W. Macdonald, and G. T. Tomy. 2009. Large and growing environmental reservoirs of Deca-BDE present an emerging health risk for fish and marine mammals. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 58:7-10.
155. Safe, S. H. 1994. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Environmental impact, biochemical and toxic responses, and implications for risk assessment. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 24:87-149.
156. Saloranta, T. M., T. Andersen, and K. Naes. 2006a. Flows of dioxins and furans in coastal food webs: inverse modeling, sensitivity analysis, and applications of linear system theory. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25:253-264.
157. Saloranta, T., J. Armitage, K. Næs, I. Cousins, and D. Barton. 2006b. SEDFLEX-Tool Multimedia Model Package: Model Code Description and Application Examples from the Grenland Fjords. NIVA-report 5216; Norwegian Institute for Water Research: Oslo, Norway, 2006.
158. Sangalang, G. B., H. C. Freeman, and R. Crowell. 1981. Testicular abnormalities in cod (Gadus morhua) fed Aroclor 1254. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 10:617-626.
159. Sellstrom, U., B. Jansson, A. Kierkegaard, C. de Wit, T. Odsjö, and M. Olsson. 1993. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) in biological samples form the Swedish environment. Chemosphere 26:1703-1718.
160. Sericano, J. L., T. Wade, G. Denoux, Y. Qian, S. Sweet, and G. Wolff. 2003. NOAA’s status and trends “MusselWatch” Program: PBDEs in bivalves from U.S. coastal areas. Abstract from the SETAC 24th Annual Meeting in North America. Pensacola: Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry.
161. Shapiro, S. S., and M. B. Wilk. 1965. EDF statistics for goodness of fit and some comparisons. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 69:730-737.
162. She, J., A. Holden, M. Tanner, M. Sharp, T. Adelsbach, and K. Hooper. 2004. Highest PBDE levels (max 63 ppm) yet found in biota measured in seabird eggs from San Francisco Bay. Organohalogen Compounds. 66:3939-3944.
163. Simon, T., J. K. Britt, and R. C. James. 2007. Development of a neurotoxic equivalence scheme of relative potency for assessing the risk of PCB mixtures. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 48:148-170.
164. Soderstrom, G., U. Sellstrom, C. A. de Wit, and M. Tysklind. 2004. Photolytic debromination of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209). Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:127-132.
165. Stahl, L. L., B. D. Snyder, A. R. Olsen, and J. L. Pitt. 2009. Contaminants in fish tissue from US lakes and reservoirs: a national probabilistic study. Environ. Monit. Assess. 150:3-19.
166. Stapleton, H.M., R.J. Letcher, and J.E. Baker. 2004a. Debromination of polybrominated diphenyl ether congeners BDE 99 and BDE 183 in the intestinal tract of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:1054-1061.
167. Stapleton, H.M., R.J. Letcher, and J.E. Baker. 2004b. Debromination of the flame retardant decabromodiphenyl ether by juvenile carp (Cyprinus carpio). Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:112-119.
168. Stapleton, H.M., et al. 2006. In vivo and in vitro debromination of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209) by juvenile rainbow trout and common carp. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40:4653-4658.
169. Stark, J. D., J. E. Banks, and R. Vargas. 2004. How risky is risk assessment: The role that life history strategies play in susceptibility of species to stress. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 101:732-736.
170. Stenzel, J. I., and B. J. Markley. 1997. Pentabromodiphenyl Oxide: Determination of the Water Solubility. Wildlife International, Ltd. Project No. 439C-109.
171. Stenzel, J. I., and W. B Nixon. 1997. Octabromobiphenyl Oxide (OBDO): Determination of the Vapour Pressure using a Spinning Rotor gauge. Wildlife International Ltd. Project No. 439C-114.
172. Steevens, J. A., Reiss, M. R., and Pawlisz, A. V. 2005. A methodology for Deriving Tissue Residue Benchmarks for Aquatic Biota: A case study for fish exposed to 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and equivalents. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 1(2):142-151.
173. Szlinder-Richert, J., I. Barska, Z. Usydus, W. Ruczyńska, and R. Grabic. 2009. Investigation of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs in fish from the southern Baltic Sea during the 2002-2006 period. Chemosphere 74:1509-1515.
174. Talsness, C. E. 2008. Overview of toxicological aspects of polybrominated diphenyl ethers: A flame-retardant additive in several consumer products. Environ. Res. 108:158-167.
175. Timme-Laragy, A. R., E. D. Levin, and R. T. Di Giulio. 2006. Developmental and behavioral effects of embryonic exposure to the polybrominated diphenyl ether mixture DE-71 in the killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus). Chemosphere 62:1097-1104.
176. Tittelmier, S. A., and G. T. Tomy. 2000. Vapor pressures of six brominated diphenyl ether congeners. Organohalogen Compounds. 47:206-209.
177. Tittlemier, S. A., T. Halldorson, G. A. Stern, and G. T. Tomy. 2002. Vapor pressures, aqueous solubilities and Henry’s law constants of some brominated flame retardants. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21:1804-1810.
178. Tomy, G. T., et al. 2004. Bioaccumulation, biotransformation, and biochemical effects of brominated diphenyl ethers in juvenile lake trout (Salvenlinus namaycush). Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:1496-1504.
179. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 1992. National Study of Chemical Residues in Fish. Volume 1. Office of Science and Technology, Washington, DC. EPA-823-R-92-008a. http://yosemite.epa.gov/water/owrcCatalog.nsf/9da204a4b4406ef885256ae0007a79c7/86f0f7d93d78a80185256d83004fd834
180. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2001. Critical Review and Assessment of Published Research on Dioxins and Related Compounds in Avian Wildlife-Field Studies. External Review Draft. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH.
181. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2002. Dose-Response Assessment from Published Research of the Toxicity of 2, 3, 7, 8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and Related Compounds to Aquatic Wildlife-Laboratory Studies. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH. EPA/600/R-02/095.
182. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2005. The Inventory of Sources and Environmental Releases of Dioxin-Like Compounds in the United States: The Year 2000 Update. External Review Draft. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC. EPA/600/p-03/002A.
183. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2006a. An inventory of sources and environmental releases of dioxin-like compounds in the United States for the years 1987, 1995, and 2000. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC. EPA/600/P-03/002F.
184. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2006b. Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) Project Plan. http://www.epa.gov/ong/kg/pbde (accessed August 11, 2009).
185. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2008. Framework for Application of the Toxicity Equivalence Methodology for Polychlorinated Dioxins, Furans, and Biphenyls in Ecological Risk Assessment. Office of the Science Advisor Risk Assessment Forum. EPA/100/R-08/004.
186. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2009a. The ECOTOX (ECOTOXicology) database, Release 4.0. http://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/ (accessed August 11, 2009).
187. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2009b. National Lake Fish Tissue Study. http:// www.epa.gov/waterscience/fish/study/index.htm (accessed August 11, 2009).
188. U.S. EPA. 2009c. 40 CFR: Protection of the Environment. http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/search/40cfr.html (accessed December 12, 2009).
189. U.S. EPA/U.S. ACE (United States Environmental Protection Agency/United States Army Corps of Engineers). Environmental Residue-Effects Database (ERED). 2009. http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/ered/ (accessed August 2009).
190. Van den Berg, M., et al. 1998. Toxic Equivalency Factors (TEFs) for PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs for Humans and Wildlife. Environ. Health Perspect. 106:775-792.
191. Van den Berg, M., et al. 2006. The 2005 World Health Organization re-evaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxin-like compounds. Toxicol. Sci. 93:223-241.
192. Vethaak, A. D., J. Lahr, R. V. Kuiper, G. C. M. Grinwis, T. R. Rankouhi, J. P. Giesy, and A. Gerritsen. 2002. Estrogenic effects in fish in The Netherlands: Some preliminary results. Toxicol. 181-182:147-150.
193. Voorspoels, S., A. Covaci, and P. Schepens. 2003. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in marine species from the Belgian North Sea and the Western Scheldt Estuary: Levels, profiles, and distribution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37:4348-4357.
194. Walker, M. K., and Peterson, R. E. 1991. Potencies of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin, dibenzofuran, and biphenyl congeners, relative to 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, for producing early life stage mortality in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aqua Toxicol 21(3-4):219-237.
195. Wan, Y., et al. 2005. Characterization of trophic transfer for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans, non- and mono-ortho polychlorinated biphenyls in the marine food web of Bohai Bay, North China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39:2417-2425.
196. Wang, Y., G. Jiang, P. K. S. Lam, and A. Li. 2007. Polybrominated diphenyl ether in the East Asian environment: A critical review. Environ. Int. 33:963-973.
197. Wania, F., and C. B. Dugani. 2003. Assessing the long-range transport potential of polybrominated diphenyl ethers: a comparison of four multimedia models. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 22:1252-1261.
198. Watanabe, I., and R. Tatsukawa. 1987. Formation of brominated dibenzofurans from the photolysis of flame retardant decabromobiphenyl ether in hexane solution by UV and sunlight. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 39:953-959.
199. Watanabe, I., and R. Tatsukawa. 1990. Anthropogenic brominated aromatics in the Japanese environment. In: Proceedings of Workshop on Brominated Aromatic Flame Retardants, Skokloster, Sweden, October 24-26, 1989. Swedish National Chemicals Inspectorate, KEMI, Solna, Sweden, pp. 63-71.
200. Wenning, R. J. 2002. Uncertainties and data needs in risk assessment of the three commercial polybrominated diphenyl ethers: Probabilistic exposure analysis and comparison with European Commission results. Chemosphere 46:779-796.
201. West, C. W., G. T. Ankley, J. W. Nichols, G. E. Elonen, and D. E. Nessa. 1997. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in long-term tests with the freshwater benthic invertebrates Chironomus tentans and Lumbriculus variegates. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 16:1287-1294.
202. WHO/IPCS (World Health Organization/International Programme on Chemical Safety). 1993. Polychlorinated biphenyls and terphenyls, second edition (environmental health criteria 140). World Health Organization, Geneva.
203. Wintermyer, M. L., and Cooper, K. R. 2003. Dioxin/Furan and polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations in oyster (Crassostera virginica, gmelin) tissues and the effects on fertilization and development. J. Shellfish Res. 22(3)737-746.
204. Wong, A., Y. D. Lei, M. Alaee, and F. Wania. 2001. Vapor pressures of the polybrominated diphenyl ethers. J. Chem. Eng. Data 46:239-242.
205. Wu, J. P., et al. 2009. Biomagnification of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls in a highly contaminated freshwater food web from South China. Environ. Pollut. 157:904-909.
206. Wu, W. Z., W. Li, Y. Xu, and J. W. Wang. 2001. Long-term toxic impact of 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on the reproduction, sexual differentiation, and development of different life stages of Gobiocypris rarus and Daphnia magna. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 48:293-300.
207. Yamauchi, M., E. Y. Kim, H. Iwata, Y. Shima, and S. Tanabe. 2006. Toxic effects of 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzop-dioxin (TCDD) in developing red seabream (Pagrus major) embryo: an association of morphological deformities with AHR1, AHR2 and CYP1A expressions. Aquat. Toxicol. 80:166-179.
208. Yogui, G. T., and J. L. Sericano. 2009. Polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants in the U.S. marine environment: A review. Environ. Internat. 35:655-666.
209. Zabel, E. W., and R. E. Peterson. 1996. TCDD-like activity of 2, 3, 6, 7-tetrachloroxanthene in rainbow trout early life stages and in a rainbow trout gonadal cell line (RTG2). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 15:2305-2309.
210. Zabel, E. W., M. K. Walker, M. W. Hornung, M. K. Clayton, and R. E. Peterson. 1995. Interactions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin, dibenzofuran, and biphenyl congeners for producing rainbow trout early life stage mortality. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 134:204-213.
211. Zeng, X., P. K. Freeman, Y. V. Vasil’ev, V. G. Voinov, S. L. Simonich, and D. F. Barofsky. 2005. Theoretical calculation of thermodynamic properties of polybrominated diphenyl ethers. J. Chem. Eng. Data. 50:1548-1556.