Neurobiological Consequences of Neglect and Abuse

Child Maltreatment: Contemporary Issues in Research and Policy

Volumn 2, Issue , 2014, Pages 205-223

  Bernard, Kristin ^a   Lind, Teresa ^a   Dozier, Mary ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE   (United States)

Author keywords

Child Protective Service; Foster Care; Foster Child; Fractional Anisotropy; Hippocampal Volume

Indexed keywords

EID: 85130770672     PISSN: 22119701     EISSN: 2211971X     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-7208-3_11     Document Type: Chapter

References (167)

1. Aboitiz, F., Scheibel, A. B., Fisher, R. S., & Zaidel, E. (1992). Fiber composition of the human corpus callosum. Brain Research, 598, 143–153.
2. Adolphs, R. (2002). Neural systems for recognizing emotions. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 12, 169–177.
3. Andersen, S. L., & Teicher, M. H. (2004). Delayed effects of early stress on hippocampal development. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29, 1988–1993.
4. Andersen, P., Morris, R., Amaral, D., Bliss, T., & O’Keefe, J. (2007). The hippocampus book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
5. Andersen, S. L., Tomoda, A., Vincow, E. S., Valente, E., Polcari, A., & Teicher, M. H. (2008). Preliminary evidence for sensitive periods in the effect of childhood sexual abuse on regional brain development. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 20, 292–301.
6. Barrós-Loscertales, A., Meseguer, V., Sanjuán, A., Belloch, V., Parcet, M. A., … Ávila, C. (2006). Striatum gray matter reduction in males with an overactive behavioral activation system. European Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 2071–2074.
7. Barry, R. J., Clarke, A. R., & Johnstone, S. J. (2003). A review of electrophysiology in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Qualitative and quantitative electroencephalography. Clinical Neurophysiology, 114, 171–183.
8. Beers, S. R., & De Bellis, M. D. (2002). Neuropsychological function in children with maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 483–486.
9. Benes, F. M., Turtle, M., Khan, Y., & Farol, P. (1994). Myelination of a key relay zone in the hippocampal formation occurs in the human brain during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 477–484.
10. Bernard, K., Butzin-Dozier, Z., Rittenhouse, J., & Dozier, M. (2010). Young children living with neglecting birth parents show more blunted daytime patterns of cortisol production than children in foster care and comparison children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164, 438–443.
11. Berrebi, A. S., Fitch, R. H., Ralphe, D. L., Denenberg, J. O., Friedrich, V. L., & Denenberg, V. H. (1988). Corpus callosum: Region-specific effects of sex, early experience and age. Brain Research, 438, 216–224.
12. Bloom, J. S., & Hynd, G. W. (2005). The role of the corpus callosum in interhemispheric transfer of information: Excitation or inhibition? Neuropsychology Review, 15, 59–71.
13. Booth, J. R., Burman, D. D., Meyer, J. R., Lei, Z., Trommer, B. L., … Mesulam, M. M. (2005). Larger deficits in brain networks for response inhibition than for visual selective attention in ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 94–111.
14. Botvinick, M., Nystrom, L., Fissell, K., Carter, C., & Cohen, J. (1999). Conflict monitoring vs. selection-for-action in anterior cingulate cortex. Nature, 402, 179–181.
15. Brake, W. G., Sullivan, R. M., & Gratton, A. (2000). Perinatal distress leads to lateralized medial prefrontal cortical dopamine hypofunction in adult rats. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 5538–5543.
16. Bremner, J. D., Randall, P., Scott, T. W., Capelli, S., Delaney, R., … Charney, D. S. (1995). Deficits in short-term memory in adult survivors of childhood abuse. Psychiatry Research, 59, 97–107.
17. Bremner, J. D., Randall, P., Vermetten, E., Staib, L. W., Bronen, R. A., … Charney, D. S. (1997). Magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood physical and sexual abuse: A preliminary report. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 41, 23–42.
18. Bremner, J. D., Vythilingam, M., Vermetten, E., Southwick, S. M., McGlashan, T., … Khan, S., et al. (2003). MRI and PET study of deficits in hippocampal structure and function in women with childhood sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 924–932.
19. Bruce, J., Kroupina, M., Parker, S., & Gunnar, M. R. (2000). The relationships between cortisol patterns, growth retardation, and developmental delay in post-institutionalized children. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies. Brighton.
20. Bruce, J., Davis, E. P., & Gunnar, M. R. (2002). Individual differences in children’s cortisol response to the beginning of the new school year. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 635–650.
21. Bruce, J., Fisher, P. A., Pears, K. C., & Levine, S. (2009a). Morning cortisol levels in preschool-aged foster children: Differential effects of maltreatment type. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 14–23.
22. Bruce, J., McDermott, J. M., Fisher, P. A., & Fox, N. (2009b). Using behavioral and electrophysiological measures to assess the effects of a preventative intervention: A preliminary study with preschool-aged foster children. Prevention Science, 10, 129–140.
23. Carlson, M., & Earls, F. (1997). Psychological and neuroendocrinological sequelae of early social deprivation in institutionalized children in Romania. In C. S. Carter, I. I. Lederhendler, & B. Kirkpatrick (Eds.), The integrative neurobiology of affiliation (pp. 419–428). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
24. Carpenter, L. L., Tyrka, A. R., Ross, N. S., Khoury, L., Anderson, G. M., & Price, L. H. (2009). Effect of childhood emotional abuse and age on cortisol responsivity in adulthood. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 69–75.
25. Carrey, N. J., Butter, H. J., Persinger, M. A., & Bialik, R. J. (1995). Physiological and cognitive correlates of child abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1067–1075.
26. Carrion, V. G., Weems, C. F., Eliez, S., Patwardhan, A., Brown, W., … Reiss, A. L. (2001). Attenuation of frontal asymmetry in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 50, 943–951.
27. Carrion, V. G., Garrett, A., Menon, V., Weems, C. F., & Reiss, A. L. (2008). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and brain function during a response-inhibition task: An fMRI study in youth. Depression and Anxiety, 25, 514–526.
28. Carrion, V. G., Weems, C. F., Watson, C., Eliez, S., Menon, V., & Reiss, A. L. (2009). Converging evidence for abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex and evaluation of midsagital structures in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder: An MRI study. Psychiatry Research, 172, 226–234.
29. Carrion, V. G., Haas, B. W., Garrett, A., Song, S., & Reiss, A. L. (2010). Reduced hippocampal activity in youth with posttraumatic stress symptoms: An fMRI study. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 35, 559–569.
30. Choi, J., Jeong, B., Rohan, M. L., Polcari, A. M., & Teicher, M. H. (2009). Preliminary evidence for white matter tract abnormalities in young adults exposed to parental verbal abuse. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 227–234.
31. Christakou, A., Brammer, M., Giampetro, V., & Rubia, K. (2009). Right ventromedial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices mediate adaptive decisions under ambiguity by integrating choice utility and outcome evaluation. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 11020–11028.
32. Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F., Toth, S. L., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2011). Normalizing the development of cortisol regulation in maltreated infants through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 789–800.
33. Dalgleish, T., Moradi, A. R., Taghavi, M. R., Neshat-Doost, H. T., & Yule, W. (2001). An experimental investigation of hypervigilance for threat in children and adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 31, 541–547.
34. Danese, A., Pariante, C. M., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., & Poulton, R. (2007). Childhood maltreatment predicts adult inflammation in a life-course study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 1319–1324.
35. Danese, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H. Milne, B. J., Polanszyk, G., … Caspi, A. (2009). Adverse childhood experiences and adult risk factors for age-related disease: Depression, inflammation, and clustering of metabolic risk markers. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 163, 1135–1143.
36. Davis, M., & Whalen, P. J. (2001). The amygdala: Vigilance and emotion. Molecular Psychiatry, 6, 13–34.
37. De Bellis, M. D., & Keshavan, M. S. (2003). Sex differences in brain maturation in maltreatment-related pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 103–117.
38. De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Clark, D. B., Casey, B. J., Giedd, J. N., … Ryan, N. D. (1999). Developmental traumatology part II: Brain development. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1271–1284.
39. De Bellis, M. D., Casey, B. J., Dahl, R. E., Birmaher, B., Williamson, D. E., … Ryan, N. D. (2000). A pilot study of amygdala volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 51–57.
40. De Bellis, M. D., Hall, J., Boring, A. M., Frustaci, K., & Moritz, G. (2001). A pilot longitudinal study of hippocampal volumes in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 305–309.
41. De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Shifflett, H., Iyengar, S., Beers, … Moritz, G. (2002a). Brain structures in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A sociodemographically matched study. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 1066–1078.
42. De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Frustaci, K., Shifflett, H., Iyengar, S., & Hall, J. (2002b). Superior temporal gyrus volumes in maltreated children and adolescents with PTSD. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 544–552.
43. De Bellis, M. D., Hooper, S. R., Spratt, E. G., & Woolley, D. (2009). Neuropsychological findings in childhood neglect and their relationships to pediatric PTSD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15, 868–878.
44. de Quervain, D. J. F., Roozendaal, B., & McGaugh, J. L. (1998). Stress and glucocorticoids impair retrieval of long-term spatial memory. Nature, 394, 787–790.
45. Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. A. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 225–236.
46. Dozier, M., & The Infant Caregiver Project Lab. (2012). Attachment and biobehavioral catch-up. University of Delaware: Unpublished document.
47. Dozier, M., Manni, M., Gordon, M. K., Peloso, E., Gunnar, M. R., … Levine, S. (2006). Foster children’s diurnal production of cortisol: An exploratory study. Child Maltreatment, 11, 189–197.
48. Dozier, M., Bernard, K., Bick, J., & Gordon, M. K. (2012). Normalizing the diurnal production of cortisol: The effects of an early intervention for high-risk children. Unpublished manuscript, University of Delaware, Newark.
49. Driessen, M., Herrmann, J., Stahl, K., Zwaan, M., Meier, S., … Petersen, D. (2000). Magnetic resonance imaging volumes of the hippocampus and the amygdala in women with borderline personality disorder and early traumatization. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 1115–1122.
50. Dubowitz, H., Hampton, R. L., Bithoney, W. G., & Newberger, E. H. (1987). Inflicted and noninflicted injuries: Differences in child and familial characteristics. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 525–535.
51. Eichenbaum, H., & Otto, T. (1992). The hippocampus: What does it do? Behavioral and Neural Biology, 57, 2–36.
52. Eimer, M., & Holmes, A. (2007). Event-related brain potential correlates of emotional face processing. Neuropsychologia, 45, 15–31.
53. Ellis, B. H., Fisher, P. A., & Zaharie, S. (2004). Predictors of disruptive behavior, developmental delays, anxiety, and affective symptomatology among institutionally reared Romanian children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 1283–1292.
54. Ellison-Wright, I., Ellison-Wright, Z., & Bullmore, E. (2008). Structural brain change in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identified by meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 51–57.
55. Eluvathingal, T. J., Chugani, H. T., Behen, M. E., Juhász, C., Muzik, O., … Makki. M. (2006). Abnormal brain connectivity in children after early severe socioemotional deprivation: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Pediatrics, 117, 2093–2100.
56. Etkin, A., & Wager, T. D. (2007). Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: A meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1476–1488.
57. Fisher, P. A., Gunnar, M. R., Dozier, M., Bruce, J., & Pears, K. C. (2006). Effects of therapeutic interventions for foster children on behavioral problems, caregiver attachment, and stress regulatory neural systems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 215–225.
58. Fisher, P. A., Stoolmiller, M., Gunnar, M. R., & Burraston, B. O. (2007). Effects of a therapeutic intervention for foster preschoolers on diurnal cortisol activity. Psychoneuroendocrinolgy, 32, 892–905.
59. Fries, E., Hesse, J., Hellhammer, J., & Hellhammer, D. (2005). A new view on hypocortisolism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 1010–1016.
60. Gasser, T., Jennen-Steinmetz, C., Sroka, L., Verteger, R., & Mocks, J. (1988). Development of the EEG of school-age children and adolescents. II. Topography. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 69, 100–109.
61. Ghetti, S., DeMaster, D. M., Yonelinas, A. P., & Bunge, S. A. (2010). Developmental differences in medial temporal lobe function during memory encoding. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 9548–9556.
62. Giedd, J. N., Rumsey, J. M., Castellanos, F. X., Rajapakse, J. C., Kaysen, D., … Rapoport, J. L. (1996a). A quantitative MRI study of the corpus callosum in children and adolescents. Developmental Brain Research, 91, 274–280.
63. Giedd, J. N., Vaituzis, A. C., Hamburger, S. D., Lange, N., Rajapakse, J. C., … Rapoport, J. L. (1996b). Quantitative MRI of the temporal lobe, amygdala, and hippocampus in normal human development: Ages 4–18 years. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 366, 223–230.
64. Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jefferies, N. O., Rajapakse, J. C., Vaituzis, A. C., … Castellanos, F. X. (1999). Development of the human corpus callosum during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Progressive Neuropsychopharmacological and Biological Psychiatry, 23, 571–588.
65. Gogtay, N., Sporn, A., Clasen, L. S., Nugent, T. F., Greenstein, D., … Rapoport, J. L. (2004). Comparison of progressive cortical gray matter loss in childhood-onset schizophrenia with that in childhood-onset atypical psychoses. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 17–22.
66. Gould, E., & Tanapat, P. (1999). Stress and hippocampal neurogenesis. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1472–1479.
67. Govindan, R. M., Behen, M. E., Helder, E., Makki, M. I., & Chugani, H. T. (2010). Altered water diffusivity in cortical association tracts in children with early deprivation identified with tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS). Cerebral Cortex, 20, 561–569.
68. Gunnar, M. R., & Cheatham, C. L. (2003). Brain and behavior interfaces: Stress and the developing brain. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 195–211.
69. Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (2002). Social regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 199–220.
70. Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173.
71. Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. M. (2001). Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 515–538.
72. Hanson, J. L., Chung, M. K., Avants, B. B., Shirtcliff, E. A., Gee, J. C., … Pollak, S. D. (2010). Early stress is associated with alterations in the orbitofrontal cortex: A tensor-based morphometry investigation of brain structure and behavioral risk. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 7466–7472.
73. Harmony, T., Marosi, E., Díaz de León, A. E., Becker, J., & Fernández, T. (1990). Effect of sex, psychosocial disadvantages and biological risk factors on EEG maturation. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 75, 482–491.
74. Hart, H., & Rubia, K. (2012). Neuroimaging of child abuse: A critical review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1–24.
75. Hart, J., Gunnar, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1996). Altered neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children related to symptoms of depression. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 201–214.
76. Helie, S., & Bouchard, C. (2010). Recurrent reporting of child maltreatment: State of knowledge and avenues for research. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 416–422.
77. Hofer, M. (1994). Hidden regulators in attachment, separation, and loss. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 192–207.
78. Hofer, M. (2006). Psychobiological roots of early attachment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 84–88.
79. Ito, Y., Teicher, M. H., Glod, C. A., & Ackerman, E. (1998). Preliminary evidence for aberrant cortical development in abused children: A quantitative EEG study. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 10, 298–307.
80. Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Dohrenwend, B. P., Link, B. G., & Brook, J. S. (1999). A longitudinal investigation of social causation and social selection processes involved in the association between socioeconomic status and psychiatric disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 490–499.
81. Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2005). Behavior problems and mental health referrals of international adoptees: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 293, 2501–2515.
82. Juraska, J. M., & Kopcik, J. R. (1988). Sex and environmental influences on the size and ultrastructure of the rat corpus callosum. Brain Research, 450, 1–8.
83. Kaplow, J. B., & Widom, C. S. (2007). Age of onset of child maltreatment predicts long-term mental health outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 176–187.
84. Kaufman, J. (1991). Depressive disorders in maltreated children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 257–265.
85. Kim, J. J., & Yoon, K. S. (1998). Stress: Metaplastic effects in the hippocampus. Trends in Neurosciences, 21, 505–509.
86. Kitayama, N., Vaccarino, L. V., Kutner, M., Weiss, P., & Bremner, J. D. (2005). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 88, 79–86.
87. Kitterle, F. L. (Ed.). (1995). Hemispheric communication: Mechanisms and models. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
88. Kreppner, J. M., O'Connor, T. G., Rutter, M., Beckett, C., Castle, J., … Groothues, C. (2001). Can inattention/overactiv-ity be an institutional deprivation syndrome? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 513–528.
89. Larson, M. C., White, B. P., Cochran, A., Donzella, B., & Gunnar, M. (1998). Dampening of the cortisol response to handling at 3 months in human infants and its relation to sleep, circadian cortisol activity, and behavioral distress. Developmental Psychobiology, 33, 327–337.
90. Lauder, J. M. (1983). Hormonal and humoral influences on brain development. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 8, 121–155.
91. Loman, M. M., Wiik, K. L., Frenn, K. A., Pollak, S. D., & Gunnar, M. R. (2009). Postinstitutionalized children’s development: Growth, cognitive, and language outcomes. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 30, 426–434.
92. Luders, E., Thompson, P. M., & Toga, A. W. (2010). The development of the corpus callosum in the healthy human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 10985–10990.
93. Lyons, S. J., Henly, J. R., & Schuerman, J. R. (2005). Informal support in maltreating families: Its effect on parenting practices. Children and Youth Services Review, 27, 21–38.
94. Maheu, F. S., Dozier, M., Guyer, A. E., Mandell, D., Peloso, E., … Ernst, M. (2010). A preliminary study of medial temporal lobe function in youths with a history of caregiver deprivation and emotional neglect. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 10, 34–49.
95. Marosi, E., Harmony, T., Becker, J., Reyes, A., Bernal, J., … Guerrero, V. (1995). Electroencephalographic coherences discriminate between children with different pedagogical evaluation. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 19, 23–32.
96. Marshall, P. J., Bar-Haim, Y., & Fox, N. A. (2002). Development of the EEG from 5 months to 4 years of age. Clinical Neurophysiology, 113, 1199–1208.
97. Marshall, P. J., Fox, N. A., & BEIP Core Group. (2004). A comparison of the electroencephalogram between institutionalized and community children in Romania. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 1327–1338.
98. Marshall, P. J., Reeb, B. C., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2008). Effects of early intervention on EEG power and coherence in previously institutionalized children in Romania. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 861–880.
99. McCurdy, K. (2005). The influence of support and stress on maternal attitudes. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 251–268.
100. McLaughlin, K. A., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., Sheridan, M. A., Marshall, P., & Nelson, C. A. (2010). Delayed maturation in brain electrical activity partially explains the association between early environmental deprivation and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 329–336.
101. McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., & Nelson, C. A. (2013). Adverse childhood experiences and brain development: Neurobiological mechanisms linking the social environment to psychiatric disorders. In K. Koenen, S. Rudenstine, & S. Galea (Eds.), Life course epidemiology of mental health disorders. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
102. Mehta, M. A., Golembo, N. I., Nosarti, C., Colvert, E., Mota, A., … Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2009). Amygdala, hippocampal, and corpus callosum size following severe early institutional deprivation: The English and Romanian Adoptees study pilot. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 943–951.
103. Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167–202.
104. Miller, G. E., Cohen, S., & Ritchey, A. K. (2002). Chronic psychological stress and the regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines: A glucocorticoid-resistance model. Health Psychology, 21, 531–541.
105. Miskovic, V., & Schmidt, L. A. (2010). Cross-regional cortical synchronization during affective image viewing. Brain Research, 1362, 102–111.
106. Mooshagian, E. (2008). Anatomy of the corpus callosum reveals its function. Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 1535–1536.
107. Mueller, S. C., Maheu, F. S., Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Mandell, D., … Ernsta, M. (2010). Early-life stress is associated with impairment in cognitive control in adolescence: An fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 48, 3037–3044.
108. Mundy, P., Fox, N., & Card, J. (2003). EEG coherence, joint attention and language development in the second year. Developmental Science, 6, 48–54.
109. Navalta, C. P., Polcari, A., Webster, D. M., Boghossian, A., & Teicher, M. H. (2006). Effects of childhood sexual abuse on neuropsychological and cognitive function in college women. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18, 45–53.
110. Neil, J., Miller, J., Mukherjee, P., & Hüppi, P. S. (2002). Diffusion tensor imaging of normal and injured developing human brain: A technical review. NMR in Biomedicine, 15, 543–552.
111. Nelson, C. (2007). A neurobiological perspective on early human deprivation. Child Development Perspectives, 1, 13–18.
112. Nolin, P., & Ethier, L. (2007). Using neuropsychological profiles to classify neglected children with or without physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 631–643.
113. Olofsson, J. K., Nordin, S., Sequeria, H., & Polich, J. (2008). Affective picture processing: An integrative review of ERP findings. Biological Psychology, 77, 247–265.
114. Otero, G. A. (1997). Poverty, cultural disadvantage and brain development: A study of pre-school children in Mexico. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 102, 512–516.
115. Patel, P. D., Lopez, J. F., Lyons, D. M., Burke, S., Wallace, M., & Schatzberg, A. F. (2000). Glucocorticoid and miner-alocorticoid receptor mRNA expression in squirrel monkey brain. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 34, 383–392.
116. Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2010). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214, 55–70.
117. Pederson, C. L., Maurer, S. H., Kaminski, P. L., Zander, K. A., Peters, C. M., … Osborn, R. E. (2004). Hippocampal volume and memory performance in a community-based sample of women with posttraumatic stress disorder secondary to child abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 37–40.
118. Picton, T. W., Bentin, S., Berg, P., Donchin, E., Hillyard, S. A., … Taylor, M. J. (2000). Guidelines for using human event-related potentials to study cognition: Recording standards and publication criteria. Psychophysiology, 37, 127–152.
119. Pollak, S. D., & Sinha, P. (2002). Effects of early experience on children’s recognition of facial displays of emotion. Developmental Psychology, 38, 784–791.
120. Pollak, S. D., & Tolley-Schell, S. A. (2003). Selective attention to facial emotion in physically abused children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 323–338.
121. Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Klorman, R., & Brumaghin, J. T. (1997). Cognitive brain event-related potentials and emotion processing in maltreated children. Child Development, 68, 773–787.
122. Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Hornuny, K., & Reed, A. (2000). Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychology, 36, 679–688.
123. Pollak, S. D., Klorman, R., Thatcher, J. E., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). P3b reflects maltreated children’s reactions to facial displays of emotion. Psychophysiology, 38, 267–274.
124. Price, D. A., Close, D. C., & Fielding, B. A. (1983). Age of appearance of circadian rhythm in salivary cortisol values in infancy. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 58, 454–456.
125. Richert, K. A., Carrion, V. G., Karchemskiy, A., & Reiss, A. I. (2006). Regional differences of the prefrontal cortex in pediatric PTSD: An MRI study. Depression and Anxiety, 23, 17–25.
126. Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Wooley, J., Nosarti, C., Heyman, I., … Brammer, M. (2006). Progressive increase of frontos-triatal brain activation from childhood to adulthood during event-related tasks of cognitive control. Human Brain Mapping, 27, 973–993.
127. Sanchez, M. M., Hearn, E. F., Do, D., Rilling, J. K., & Herndon, J. G. (1998). Differential rearing affects corpus callosum size and cognitive function of rhesus monkeys. Brain Research, 812, 38–49.
128. Sapolsky, R. M., Uno, H., Rebert, C. S., & Finch, C. E. (1990). Hippocampal damage associated with prolonged glucocorticoid exposure in primates. Journal of Neuroscience, 10, 2897–2902.
129. Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munch, A. U. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21, 55–89.
130. Schatzberg, A. F., & Lindley, S. E. (2008). Glucocorticoid antagonists in neuropsychiatric disorders. European Journal of Pharmacology, 583, 358–364.
131. Schmahl, C. G., Vermetten, E., Elzinga, B. M., & Bremner, J. D. (2003). Magnetic resonance imaging of hippocampal and amygdala volume in women with childhood abuse and borderline personality disorder. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 122(3), 193–198.
132. Schulz, K. P., Fan, J., Tang, C. Y., Newcorn, J. H., Buchsbaum, M. S., … Halperin, J. M. (2004). Response inhibition in adolescents diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during childhood: An event-related fMRI study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1650–1657.
133. Shaw, P., Lerch, J., Greenstein, D., Sharp, W., Clasen, L., … Rapoport, J. (2006). Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 540–549.
134. Sheridan, M. A., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., McLaughlin, K. A., & Nelson, C. A. (2012). Variation in neural development as a result of exposure to institutionalization early in childhood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 12927–12932.
135. Shirtcliff, E. A., Coe, C. L., & Pollak, S. D. (2009). Early childhood stress is associated with elevated antibody levels to herpes simplex virus type 1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 2963–2967.
136. Sowell, E. R., Peterson, B. S., Thompson, P. M., Welcome, S. E., Henkenius, A. L., & Toga, A. W. (2003). Mapping cortical change across the human life span. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 309–315.
137. Stein, M. B., Koverola, C., Hanna, C., Torchia, M. G., & McClarty, B. (1997). Hippocampal volume in women victimized by childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Medicine, 27, 951–959.
138. Stein, M. D., Simmons, A. N., Feinstein, J. S., & Paulus, M. P. (2007). Increased amygdala and insula activation during emotion processing in anxiety-prone subjects. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 318–327.
139. Stevens, S. E., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Kreppner, J. M., Beckett, C., Castle, J., … Rutter, M. (2008). Inattention/overac-tivity following early severe institutional deprivation: Presentation and associations in early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 385–398.
140. Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 632–639.
141. Teicher, M. H., Ito, Y., Glod, C. A., Andersen, S. L., Dumont, N. L., & Ackerman, E. (1997). Preliminary evidence for abnormal cortical development in physically and sexually abused children using EEG coherence and MRI. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 821, 160–175.
142. Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P., & Kim, D. M. (2003). The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 33–44.
143. Teicher, M. H., Dumont, N. L., Ito, Y., Vaituzis, C., Giedd, J. N., & Andersen, S. L. (2004). Childhood neglect is associated with reduced corpus callosum area. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 80–85.
144. Teicher, M. H., Anderson, C. M., & Polcari, A. (2012). Childhood maltreatment is associated with reduced volume in the hippocampal subfields CA3, dentate gyrus, and subiculum. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, E562–E572.
145. Thatcher, R. W., Krause, P. J., & Hrybyk, M. (1986). Cortico-cortical associations and EEG coherence: A two-compartmental model. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 64, 123–143.
146. Thatcher, R. W., North, D. M., & Biver, C. J. (2008). Development of cortical connections as measured by EEG coherence and phase delays. Human Brain Mapping, 29, 1400–1415.
147. Thomas, K. M., Drevets, W. C., Dahl, R. E., Ryan, N. D., Birmaher, B., … Casey, B. J. (2001). Amygdala response to fearful faces in anxious and depressed children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 1057–1063.
148. Tomoda, A., Suzuki, H., Rabi, K., Sheu, Y., Polcari, A., & Teicher, M. H. (2009). Reduced prefrontal cortical gray matter volume in young adults exposed to harsh corporal punishment. NeuroImage, 47, T66–T71.
149. Tottenham, N., & Sheridan, M. A. (2010). A review of adversity, the amygdala and the hippocampus: A consideration of developmental timing. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 3, 1–18.
150. Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., & Casey, B. J. (2009). A developmental perspective on human amygdala function. In P. J. Whalen & E. A. Phelps (Eds.), The Human Amygdala (pp. 107–117). New York: Guilford Press.
151. Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Quinn, B. T., McCarry, T. W., Nurse, M., … Casey, B. J. (2010). Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulty in emotion regulation. Developmental Science, 13, 46–61.
152. Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Millner, A., Gilhooly, T., Zevin, J. D., & Casey, B. J. (2011). Elevated amygdala response to faces following early deprivation. Developmental Science, 14, 190–204.
153. Tupler, L. A., & De Bellis, M. D. (2006). Segmented hippocampal volume in children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 59, 523–529.
154. Twardosz, S., & Lutzker, J. R. (2010). Child maltreatment and the developing brain: A review of neuroscience perspectives. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 59–68.
155. van der Knaap, L. J., & van der Ham, I. J. M. (2011). How does the corpus callosum mediate interhemispheric transfer? A review. Behavioural Brain Research, 223, 211–221.
156. Vanderwert, R. E., Marshall, P. J., Nelson, C. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Fox, N. A. (2010). Timing of intervention affects brain electrical activity in children exposed to severe psychosocial neglect. PLoS One, 5, e11415.
157. Vasey, M. W., el-Hag, N. D., & Daleiden, E. L. (1996). Anxiety and the processing of emotionally threatening stimuli: Distinctive patterns of selective attention among high-and low-test-anxious children. Child Development, 67, 1173–1185.
158. Vorria, P., Papaligoura, Z., Sarafidou, J., Kopakaki, M., Dunn, J., … Kontaopoulou, A. (2006). The development of adopted children after institutional care: A follow-up study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1246–1253.
159. Vyas, A., & Pillai, A. G. (2004). Recovery after chronic stress fails to reverse amygdaloid neuronal hypertrophy and enhanced anxiety-life behavior. Neuroscience, 128, 667–673.
160. Vythilingam, M., Heim, C., Newport, J., Miller, A. H., Anderson, E., … Bremner, J. D. (2002). Childhood trauma associated with smaller hippocampal volume in women with major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 2072–2080.
161. Watamura, S. E., Donzella, B., Alwin, J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2003). Morning-to-afternoon increases in cortisol concentrations for infants and toddlers at child care: Age differences and behavioral correlates. Child Development, 74, 1006–1020.
162. Wellman, C. L. (2001). Dendritic reorganization in pyramidal neurons in medial prefrontal cortex after chronic corticosterone administration. Journal of Neurobiology, 49, 245–253.
163. Winberg, J. (2005). Mother and newborn baby: Mutual regulation of physiology and behavior-a selective review. Developmental Psychobiology, 47, 217–229.
164. Wismer-Fries, A. B., & Pollak, S. D. (2004). Emotion understanding in post institutionalized Eastern European children. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 355–369.
165. Woon, F. L., & Hedges, D. W. (2008). Hippocampal and amygdala volumes in children and adults with childhood maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Hippocampus, 18, 729–736.
166. Zeanah, C. H., Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., Smyke, A. T., Marshall, P. J., … Koga, S. F. (2003). Designing research to study the effects of institutionalization on brain and behavioral development: The Bucharest early intervention project. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 885–907.
167. Zeanah, C. H., Egger, H. L., Smyke, A. T., Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., … Guthrie, D. (2009). Institutional rearing and psychiatric disorders in Romanian preschool children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 777–785.