Quantifying and mapping land use changes and regulating ecosystem service potentials in a data-scarce peri-urban region in Kenya

Ecosystems and People

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2019, Pages 11-32

  Wangai, Peter Waweru ^a   Burkhard, Benjamin ^b,c   Müller, Felix ^d  

^a KENYATTA UNIVERSITY   (Kenya)

^b LEIBNIZ UNIVERSITY HANNOVER   (Germany)

^c LEIBNIZ CENTRE FOR AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE RESEARCH ZALF   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF KIEL   (Germany)

Author keywords

Alexander van Oudenhoven; data scarcity; ecosystem service matrix; knowledge combination; Land use change; urbanisation

Indexed keywords

DATA SET; ECOSYSTEM SERVICE; LAND COVER; LAND USE; MATRIX; PERIURBAN AREA; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; SATELLITE IMAGERY; TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM; URBAN ECOSYSTEM; URBAN POPULATION; URBANIZATION;

KENYA;

EID: 85065888747     PISSN: 26395908     EISSN: 26395916     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/21513732.2018.1529708     Document Type: Article

References (150)

1. Adeloye AJ, Rustum R., 2011. Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and influence of urban planning: proceedings of the institution of civil engineers. Urban Des Plann. 164(3):175–187.
2. Airoldi L, Pont M, Abbiati M. 2016. Conservation challenges in human dominated seascapes: the harbour and coast of Ravenna. Regional Stud Marine Sci. 8:308–318.
3. Alberti M, Marzluff JM, Shulenberger E, Ryan C, Zumbrunnen C, Bradley G, Ryan C, Zumbrunnen C. 2003. Integrating humans into ecology: opportunities and challenges for studying urban ecosystems. BioScience. 53(12):1169–1179. http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1641/0006-3568%282003%29053%5B1169%3AIHIEOA%5D2.0.CO%3B2.
4. Andersson-Sköld Y, Klingberg J, Gunnarsson B, Cullinane K, Gustafsson I, Hedblom M, Knez I, Lindberg F, Ode Sang A, Pleijel H, et al. 2018. A framework for assessing urban greenery’s effects and valuing its ecosystem services. J Environ Manage. 205:274–285.
5. Arnold C, Theede J, Gagnon A. 2014. A qualitative exploration of access to urban migrant healthcare in Nairobi, Kenya. Soc Sci Med. 110:1–9.
6. Augustin A, Odhiambo F. 2009. The primary solid waste storage gaps experienced by Nairobi households. Ethiopian J Environ Stud Manag. 2(3):34–43.
7. Barker T, Bashmakov I, Bernstein L, Bogner JE, Bosc PR, Dave DOR, Fisher BS, Gupta S, Halsnæs K, Heij GJ, et al. 2007. Technical summary. In: Metz B, Davidson OR, Bosch PR, Dave R, Meyer LA, editors. Climate change 2007: mitigation. Contribution of working group III to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
8. Bolund P, Hunhammar S. 1999. Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecological Econ. 29(2):293–301.
9. Borucke M, Moore D, Cranston G, Gracey K, Iha K, Larson J, Lazarus E, Morales J, Wackernagel M, Galli A. 2013. Accounting for demand and supply of the biosphere’s regenerative capacity: the national footprint accounts’ underlying methodology and framework. Ecol Indic. 24:518–533.
10. Boyd J, Banzhaf S. 2007. What are ecosystem services? The need for standardized environmental accounting units. Ecological Econ. 63(2–3):616–626.
11. Burgess EW. 1925. The growth of the city. In: Park RE, Burgess, EW, & McKenzie RW. The City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
12. Burkhard B, Maes J, editors. 2017. Mapping ecosystem services. Sofia: Pensoft Publishers: 374 pp.
13. Burkhard B, Kandziora M, Hou Y, Müller F. 2014. Ecosystem service potentials, flows and demands-concepts for spatial localisation, indication and quantification. Landscape Online. 34(1):1–32.
14. Burkhard B, Kroll F, Müller F, Windhorst W. 2009. Landscapes’ capacities to provide ecosystem services - a concept for land-cover based assessments. Landsc Online. 15:1–22.
15. Burkhard B, Kroll F, Nedkov S, Müller F. 2012. Mapping ecosystem service supply, demand and budgets. Ecol Indic. 21:17–29. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1470160X11001907.
16. Cadenasso M, Pickett S, Schwarz K. 2007. Spatial heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: reconceptualizing land cover and a framework for classification. Front Ecol Environ. 5(2):80–88.
17. Cavan G, Lindley S, Jalayer F, Yeshitela K, Pauleit S, Renne F, Gill S, Capuano P, Nebebe A, Woldegerima T, et al. 2014. Urban morphological determinants of temperature regulating ecosystem services in two African cities. Ecol Indic. 42:43–57.
18. Chuai X, Huang X, Lai L, Wang W, Peng J, Zhao R. 2013. Land use structure optimization based on carbon storage in several regional terrestrial ecosystems across China. Environ Sci Policy. 25:50–61.
19. Cilliers S, Cilliers J, Lubbe R, Siebert S. 2013. Ecosystem services of urban green spaces in African countries-perspectives and challenges. Urban Ecosys. 16(4):681–702.
20. Clerici N, Paracchini ML, Maes J. 2014. Land-cover change dynamics and insights into ecosystem services in European stream riparian zones. Ecohydrol Hydrobiol. 14(2):107–120.
21. Cobbinah PB, Erdiaw-Kwasie O, Amoateng P. 2015. Africa’s urbanisation: implications for sustainable development. Cities. 47:62–72.
22. Cohen MJ, Brown MT, Shepherd KD. 2006. Estimating the environmental costs of soil erosion at multiple scales in Kenya using emergy synthesis. Agriculture Ecosyst Environ. 114(2–4):249–269.
23. Crossman N, Burkhard B, Nedkov S, Willemen PK, Palomo I, Drakou E, Martı´n-Lopez B, McPhearson T, Boyanova K, Alkemade R, et al. 2013. A blueprint for mapping and modelling ecosystem services. Ecosystem Serv. 4:4–14.
24. Daniel TC, Muhar A, Arnberger A, Aznar O, Boyd JW, Chan KM, Costanza R, Elmqvist T, Flint C, Gobster P, et al. 2012. Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 109(23):8812–8819.
25. Dave R, Tompkins EL, Schreckenberg K. 2017. Forest ecosystem services derived by smallholder farmers in northwestern madagascar: Storm hazard mitigation and participation in forest management. Forest Policy and Economics. 84:72–82.
26. de Brauw A, Mueller V, Lee HL. 2014. The role of rural-urban migration in the structural transformation of Sub-Saharan Africa. World Dev. 63:33–42.
27. De Groot RS, Alkemade R, Braat L, Hein L, Willemen L. 2010. Challenges in integrating the concept of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning, management and decision making. Ecological Complexity. 7(3):260–272.
28. De Valck J, Landuyt D, Broekx S, Liekens I, De Nocker L, Vranken L, 2017. Outdoor recreation in various landscapes: which site characteristics really matter? Land Use Policy. 65(186–197). doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.04.009
29. Deng JS, Wang K, Hong Y, Qi JG. 2009. Spatio-temporal dynamics and evolution of land use change and landscape pattern in response to rapid urbanization. Landsc Urban Plan. 92(3–4):187–198.
30. Derkzen ML, Nagendra H, Van Teeffelen AJ, Purushotham A, Verburg PH. 2017. Shifts in ecosystem services in deprived urban areas: understanding people’s responses and consequences for well-being. Ecol Soc. 22(1):51.
31. deYoung B, Barange M, Beaugrand G, Harris R, Perry RI, Scheffer M, Werner F. 2008. Regime shifts in marine ecosystems: detection, prediction and management. Trends Ecol Evol. 23(7):402–409.
32. Douglas I. 2006. Peri-urban ecosystems and societies transitional zones and contrasting values. In: McGregor D, Simon D, Thompson D, editors. Peri-urban interface: approaches to sustainable natural and human resource use. London/New York: Earthscan; p. 18–29.
33. Driscoll MP. 1985. Measures of cognitive structure: do they assess learning at the level of comprehension? Contemp Educ Psychol. 10(1):38–51.
34. Dumenu WK. 2013. What are we missing? Economic value of an urban forest in Ghana. Ecosystem Serv. 5:137–142.
35. Egoh BN, O’Farrell PJ, Charef A, Josephine GL, Koellner T, Nibam AH, Egoh M, Willemen L. 2012. An African account of ecosystem service provision: use, threats and policy options for sustainable livelihoods. Ecosystem Serv. 2:71–81.
36. Egoh BN, Reyers B, Rouget M, Richardson DM. 2011. Identifying priority areas for ecosystem service management in South African grasslands. J Environ Manage. 92(6):1642–1650.
37. Erez M. 1994. Towards a model of cross-cultural i/o psychology. In: Dunnette MD, Hough L, Triandis H, editors. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Palo Alto (Ca): Consulting Psychologists Press; 569–607. https://ie.technion.ac.il/~merez/papers/Mothandbook.pdf.
38. Ericksen P, Leeuw JD, Said M, Silvestri ZL. 2012. Mapping ecosystem services in the Ewaso Ng ’ iro catchment. Int J Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Serv Manag. 8:37–41.
39. Escobedo FJ, Kroeger T, Wagner JE. 2011. Urban forests and pollution mitigation: analyzing ecosystem services and disservices. Environ Pollut. 159(8–9):2078–2087.
40. Estoque RC, Murayama Y. 2011. Spatio-temporal urban land use/cover change analysis in a hill station: the case of Baguio city, Philippines. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 21:326–335.
41. Fagerholm N, Käyhkö N, Ndumbaro F, Khamis M. 2012. Community stakeholders’ knowledge in landscape assessments–mapping indicators for landscape services. Ecol Ind. 18:421–433.
42. [IEBC] Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission. 2012. The revised preliminary report of the proposed boundaries of constituencies and wards. Vol. 1. Kenya: IEBC; [accessed 2018 Sep13]. https://www.iebc.or.ke/uploads/resources/WHXao7x83D.pdf.
43. Fazey I, Fazey JA, Salisbury JG, Lindenmayer DB, Dovers S. 2006a. The nature and role of experiential knowledge for environmental conservation. Environ Conserv. 33(1):1–10.
44. Ferreira JA, Condessa B. 2012. Defining expansion areas in small urban settlements - An application to the municipality of Tomar (Portugal). Landsc Urban Plan. 107(3):283–292.
45. Fisher B, Turner RK, Morling P. 2009. Defining and classifying ecosystem services for decision making. Ecological Econ. 68(3):643–653.
46. Fratkin E, Mearns R. 2003. Sustainability and Pastoral Livelihoods: lessons from East African Maasai and Mongolia. Hum Organ. 62(2):112–122.
47. Fujiwara M, Takada T. 2017. Environmental stochasticity. Chichester: eLS. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. accessed. http://www.els.net.
48. Fussell E, Massey DS. 2004. The limits to cumulative causation: international migration from Mexican urban areas. Demography. 41(1):151–171.
49. Golley FB. 1996. A history of the ecosystem concept in ecology: more than the sum of the parts. New York: Yale University Press.
50. Goodness J, Andersson E, Anderson PL, Elmqvist T. 2016. Exploring the links between functional traits and cultural ecosystem services to enhance urban ecosystem management. Ecol Indic. 70:597–605.
51. Graham J, Gurian P, Corella-Barud V, Avitia-Diaz R. 2004. Peri-urbanization and in-home environmental health risks: the side effects of planned and unplanned growth. International Journal Of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 207(5):447–454.
52. Grimm NB, Faeth SH, Golubiewski NE, Redman CL, Wu J, Bai X, Briggs JM. 2008. Global change and the ecology of cities. Science. 319(5864):756–760.
53. Haase D, Larondelle N, Andersson E, Artmann M, Borgström S, Breuste J, Gomez-Baggethun E, Gren A, Hamstead Z, Hansen R, et al. 2014. A quantitative review of urban ecosystem service assessments: concepts, models, and implementation. Ambio. 43(4):413–433.
54. Haines-Young R, 2016. Report of Results of a Survey to Assess the Use of CICES, 2016. Support to EEA tasks under the EU MAES Process. Negotiated procedure No EEA/NSS/16/002.
55. Haines-Young R, Potschin M. 2010. The links between biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being. In: Raffaelli D, Frid C, Editors. Ecosystem ecology: a new synthesis. Cambridge: University Press; p. 110–139.
56. Haines-Young R, Potschin M, 2013. Common Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES): consultation on version 4, August-December 2012. Report to the European Environment Agency [Internet]. accessed 2017 Jan21]. https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/CEM/pdf/CICES%20V43_Revised%20Final_Report_29012013.pdf.
57. Hare SR, Mantua NJ. 2000. Empirical evidence for North Pacific regime shifts in 1977 and 1989. Progress in Oceanography. 47(2):103–145.
58. Haregeweyn N, Fikadu G, Tsunekawa A, Tsubo M, Meshesha DT. 2012. The dynamics of urban expansion and its impacts on land use/land cover change and small-scale farmers living near the urban fringe: a case study of Bahir Dar, Ethiopia. Landscape Urban Plan. 106(2):149–157.
59. Harris CD, Ullman EL., 1945. The nature of cities. the annals of the american academy of political and social science. 242(1): 7–17.
60. Hou Y, Burkhard B, Müller F. 2013. Uncertainties in landscape analysis and ecosystem service assessment. J Environ Manage. 127:117–131.
61. Hou Y, Müller F, Li B, Kroll F. 2015. Urban-rural gradients of ecosystem services and the linkages with socioeconomics. Landscape Online. 39:1–31.
62. Hoyt H., 1939. The pattern of movement of residential rental neighborhoods. The structure and growth of residential neighborhoods in American cities. Washington DC: Federal Housing Administration. 112–122.
63. Jacobs S, Burkhard B, Van Daele T, Staes J, Schneiders A. 2015. “The matrix reloaded”: a review of expert knowledge use for mapping ecosystem services. Ecol Modell. 295:21–30.
64. Jones L, Norton L, Austin Z, Browne AL, Donovan D, Emmett BA, Grabowski ZJ, Howard DC, Jones JPG, Kenter JO, et al. 2016. Stocks and flows of natural and human-derived capital in ecosystem services. Land Use Policy-. 52:151–162.
65. [KFS] Kenya Forest Service. 2016. The Forest Conservation and Management Bill 2014. KFS; [accessed 2018 Sep15]. http://www.kenyaforestservice.org/documents/Forests%20Conservation%20and%20Management%20Bill,%202014%20%2826-2-2014%29.pdf.
66. K’Akumu OA, Olima WHA. 2007. The dynamics and implications of residential segregation in Nairobi. Habitat Int. 31(1):87–99.
67. Kaiser G, Burkhard B, Römer H, Sangkaew R, Graterol R, Haitook T, Sterr H, Sakuna-Schwartz D., 2013. Mapping tsunami impacts on land cover and related ecosystem service supply in Phang, Nga, Thailand. Nat. Hazards Earth, Syst. Sci. 13: 3095–3111. https://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/3095/2013/
68. Kandziora M, Burkhard B, Müller F. 2013. Interactions of ecosystem properties, ecosystem integrity and ecosystem service indicators: a theoretical matrix exercise. Ecol Indic. 28:54–78.
69. Karenyi N, Sink K, Nel R. 2016. Defining seascapes for marine unconsolidated shelf sediments in an eastern boundary upwelling region: the southern Benguela as a case study. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 169:195–206.
70. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 2015. Kenya facts and figures. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). [accessed 2018 Sep13]. http://www.knbs.or.ke/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=20&Itemid=1107#;.
71. Kitzes J, Galli A, Bagliani M, Barrett J, Dige G, Ede S, Erb K, Giljum S, Haberl H, Hails C, et al. 2009. A research agenda for improving national ecological footprint accounts. Ecological Econ. 68(7):1991–2007.
72. Klopp JM. 2012. Towards a political economy of transportation policy and practice in Nairobi. Urban Forum. 23(1):1–21.
73. Kroll F, Kabisch N. 2012. The relation of diverging urban growth processes and demographic change along an urban–rural gradient. population. Space and Place. 18(3):260–276.
74. Larondelle N, Haase D. 2013. Urban ecosystem services assessment along a rural-urban gradient: a cross-analysis of European cities. Ecol Indic. 29:179–190.
75. Larondelle N, Haase D, Kabisch N. 2014. Mapping the diversity of regulating ecosystem services in European cities. Global Environmen Change. 26:119–129.
76. Lee YC, Ahern J, Yeh CT. 2015. Ecosystem services in peri-urban landscapes: the effects of agricultural landscape change on ecosystem services in Taiwan’s western coastal plain. Landsc Urban Plan. 139:137–148.
77. Li B, Chen D, Wu S, Zhou S, Wang T, Chen H. 2016. Spatio-temporal assessment of urbanization impacts on ecosystem services: case study of Nanjing City, China. Ecol Indic. 71:416–427.
78. Liebenow DK, Cohen MJ, Gumbricht T, Shepherd KD, Shepherd G. 2012. Do ecosystem services influence household wealth in rural Mali? Ecological Econ. 82:33–44.
79. Liu Y, Luo T, Liu Z, Kong X, Li J, Tan R. 2015. A comparative analysis of urban and rural construction land use change and driving forces: implications for urban–rural coordination development in wuhan, central china. Habitat International. 47:113–125.
80. Luederitz C, Brink E, Gralla F, Hermelingmeier V, Meyer M, Niven L, Panzer L, Partelow S, Rau A, Sasaki R, et al. 2015. A review of urban ecosystem services: six key challenges for future research. Ecosystem Serv. 14:98–112.
81. M A A, Riley M, Stockmann R, Bennett L, Kahl A, Lockett T, Osmond M, Sanguansri P, Stonehous W, Zajac I, et al. 2016. Role of food processing in food and nutrition security. Trends Food Sci Technol. 56:115–125.
82. Maes J, Egoh B, Willemen L, Liquete C, Vihervaara P, Schägner JP, Grizzetti B, Drakou EG, La Notte A, Zulian G, et al. 2012. Mapping ecosystem services for policy support and decision making in the European Union. Ecosystem Serv. 1(1):31–39.
83. [MA] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being. Washington D.C. (USA): Island Press.
84. [NEMA] National Environment Management Authority. 2011. Kenya state of environment and outlook 2010. NEMA; [accessed 2018 Sep12]. https://www.nema.go.ke/images/Docs/Regulations/KenyaSoEintro.pdf.
85. [MICNG] Ministry of Interior and Coordination of National Government. 2015. Application guidelines for a National Identity Card. MICNG; [[accessed 2018 Sep12]. http://www.interior.go.ke/.
86. [MENRRDA] Ministry of Environment Natural Resources and Regional Development Authorities. 2015. Kenya’s natural capital: a biodiversity atlas. MENRRDA; [accessed 2018 Sep14]. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312046077_Kenya%27s_Natural_Capital_A_Biodiversity_Atlas.
87. [NMG] Nation Media Group. 2015a. Global entrepreneurship Summit in Nairobi. NMG; [accessed 2018 Sep14]. https://www.nation.co.ke/business/Global-Entrepreneurship-Summit-PHOTOS/996-2808176-12qno58/index.html.
88. [NMG] Nation Media Group. 2015b. Shame of buildings on city river. NMG; [accessed 2018 Sep14]. https://www.nation.co.ke/news/Shame-of-buildings-on-city-river/-/1056/2722750/-/4lst18z/-/index.html.
89. Makachia PA. 2011. Evolution of urban housing strategies and dweller-initiated transformations in Nairobi. City Culture Soc. 2(4):219–234.
90. Marraccini E, Debolini M, Moulery M, Abrantes P, Bouchier A, Chéry JP, Sanz E, Sabbatini T, Napoleone C. 2015. Common features and different trajectories of land cover changes in six Western Mediterranean urban regions. Appl Geography. 62:347–356.
91. Martínez-Harms MJ, Balvanera P. 2012. Methods for mapping ecosystem service supply: a review. Int J Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Serv Manag. 8(1–2):17–25.
92. McDonough K, Hutchinson S, Moore T, Hutchinson JS. 2017. Analysis of publication trends in ecosystem services research. Ecosystem Services. 25:82-88.
93. Müller F. 2005. Indicating ecosystem and landscape organisation. Ecol Indic. 5(4 SPEC. ISS.):280–294.
94. Müller F, Burkhard B. 2007. An ecosystem based framework to link landscape structures, functions and services. In: Mander Ü, Wiggering H, Helming K, editors. Multifunctional land use: meeting future demands for landscape goods and services. (). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer; p. 37–63. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-36763-5_3
95. Mutoko MC, Hein L, Bartholomeus H. 2014. Integrated analysis of land use changes and their impacts on agrarian livelihoods in the western highlands of Kenya. Agric Syst. 128:1–12.
96. Naqvi HR, Siddiqui L, Devi LM, Siddiqui MA. 2014. Landscape transformation analysis employing compound interest formula in the Nun Nadi Watershed, India. Egypt J Remote Sensing Space Sci. 17(2):149–157.
97. Nassl M, Löffler J. 2015. Ecosystem services in coupled social–ecological systems: closing the cycle of service provision and societal feedback. Ambio. 44:737–749.
98. Nedkov S, Burkhard B. 2012. Flood regulating ecosystem services-mapping supply and demand, in the Etropole municipality, Bulgaria. Ecological Indicators. 21:67–79.
99. Nguyen LD, Raabe K, Grote U. 2013. Rural-urban migration, household vulnerability, and welfare in Vietnam. World Dev. 71:79–93.
100. Nilsson K, Pauleit S, Bell S, Aalbers C, Nielsen TAS, (Eds.). 2013. Peri-urban futures: scenarios and models for land use change in Europe. Heidelberg: Springer Science & Business Media.
101. Njeru J. 2013. “Donor-driven” neoliberal reform processes and urban environmental change in Kenya: the case of Karura Forest in Nairobi. Prog Dev Stud. 13(1):63–78.
102. Olima WHA. 1997. The conflicts, shortcomings, and implications of the urban land management system in Kenya. Habitat Int. 21(3):319–331.
103. Ongore VO, Kusa GB. 2013. Determinants of financial performance of commercial banks in Kenya. Int J Econ Financial Issues. 3(1):237–252.
104. Owuor MA, Icely J, Newton A, Nyunja J, Otieno P, Tuda AO, Oduor N. 2017. Mapping of ecosystem services flow in Mida Creek, Kenya. Ocean Coast Manag. 140:11–21.
105. Padgham J, Jabbour J, Dietrich K. 2015. Managing change and building resilience: a multi-stressor analysis of urban and peri-urban agriculture in Africa and Asia. Urban Clim. 12:183–204.
106. Pauleit S, Ennos R, Golding Y. 2005. Modeling the environmental impacts of urban land use and land cover change - A study in Merseyside, UK. Landsc Urban Plan. 71(2–4):295–310.
107. Peeck J. 1993. Increasing picture effects in learning from illustrated text. Learn Instruction. 3(3):227–238.
108. Plieninger T, Dijks S, Oteros-Rozas E, Bieling C. 2013. Assessing, mapping, and quantifying cultural ecosystem services at community level. Land Use Policy. 33:118–129.
109. Preston BJ, 2011. The use of restorative justice for environmental crime. accessed. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1831822.
110. Raymond CM, Fazey I, Reed MS, Stringer LC, Robinson GM, Evely AC. 2010. Integrating local and scientific knowledge for environmental management. J Environ Manage. 91(8):1766–1777.
111. Rees WE. 1999. The built environment and the ecosphere: a global perspective. Building Research & Information. 27(4–5):206–220.
112. Reuter H, Jopp F, Blanco-Moreno JM, Damgaard C, Matsinos Y, DeAngelis DL. 2010. Ecological hierarchies and self-organisation - Pattern analysis, modelling and process integration across scales. Basic Appl Ecol. 11(7):572–581.
113. Schäffler A, Swilling M. 2013. Valuing green infrastructure in an urban environment under pressure - The Johannesburg case. Ecological Econ. 86:246–257.
114. Schlosberg D. 2013. Theorising environmental justice: the expanding sphere of a discourse. Env Polit. 22(1):37–55.
115. Schneider A, Friedl MA, Potere D. 2009. A new map of global urban extent from MODIS satellite data. Environ Res Lett. 4(4):044003. http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/4/4/044003/pdf.
116. Seppelt R, Dormann CF, Eppink FV, Lautenbach S, Schmidt S. 2011. A quantitative review of ecosystem service studies: approaches, shortcomings and the road ahead. J Appl Ecol. 48(3):630–636.
117. Silvertown J. 2015. Have ecosystem services been oversold? Trends Ecol Evol. 30(11):641–648.
118. Silvestri S, Zaibet L, Said MY, Kifugo SC. 2013. Valuing ecosystem services for conservation and development purposes: a case study from Kenya. Environ Sci Policy. 31:23–33.
119. Sohe MSI, Ahmed Mukul S, Burkhard B. 2015. Landscape’s capacities to supply ecosystem services in Bangladesh: a mapping assessment for Lawachara National Park. Ecosystem Serv. 12:128–135.
120. Stürck J, Schulp CJE, Verburg PH. 2015. Spatio-temporal dynamics of regulating ecosystem services in Europe–the role of past and future land use change. Appl Geography. 63:121–135.
121. Syrbe R, Walz U. 2012. Spatial indicators for the assessment of ecosystem services: providing, benefiting and connecting areas and landscape metrics. Ecol Indic. 21:80–88.
122. TEEB. 2010. The economics of ecosystem and biodiversity for local and regional policy makers. Report, 207. accessed and Reports/Reports/Local and Regional Policy Makers/D2 Report/TEEB_Local_Policy-Makers_Report.pdf.
123. Thieme TA. 2015. Turning hustlers into entrepreneurs, and social needs into market demands: corporate–community encounters in Nairobi, Kenya. Geoforum. 59:228–239.
124. Tian L, Ge B, Li Y. 2017. Impacts of state-led and bottom-up urbanization on land use change in the peri-urban areas of Shanghai: planned growth or uncontrolled sprawl? Cities. 60:476–486.
125. Tisdell C. 2014. Ecosystems functions and genetic diversity: TEEB raises challenges for the economics discipline. Econ Anal Policy. 44(1):14–20.
126. UN. 2016. The world’s cities in 2016. UN; [accessed 2018 Sep15]. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2016_data_booklet.pdf.
127. UNDESA. 2012. World urbanization prospects: the 2011 Revision. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. accessed. .
128. UNEP/GoK. 2005. Devastating drought in Kenya: environmental impacts and responses. UNEP, Nairobi; UNEP; [accessed 2018 Sep12]. http://meteorology.uonbi.ac.ke/sites/default/files/cbps/sps/meteorology/Project%20on%20Disasters.pdf.
129. UNESCO. 2005. The precautionary principle UNESCO; [accessed 2018 July04]. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001395/139578e.pdf.
130. UN-HABITAT. 2007. Cities can achieve more sustainable land use if municipalities combine urban planning and development with environmental management. UNON publication; [accessed 2018 Sep05]. https://na.unep.net/atlas/kenya/downloads/chapters/Kenya_Screen_Chapter5-End.pdf.
131. van Den Belt M, Stevens SM. 2016. Transformative agenda, or lost in the translation? A review of top-cited articles in the first four years of ecosystem services. Ecosystem Serv. 22:60–72.
132. van Den Berg L, Drewett R, Klaassen LH, Rossi A, Vijverberg CHT. 1982. Urban Europe: a study of growth and decline. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
133. Van Oudenhoven APE, Petz K, Alkemade R, Hein L, De Groot RS. 2012. Framework for systematic indicator selection to assess effects of land management on ecosystem services. Ecol Indic. 21:110–122.
134. Vaz AS, Kueffer C, Kull CA, Richardson DM, Vicente JR, Kühn I, Schröter M, Hauck J, Bonn A, Honrado JP. 2017. Integrating ecosystem services and disservices: insights from plant invasions. Ecosystem Services. 23:94–107.
135. Vihervaara P, Rönkä M, Walls M. 2010. Trends in ecosystem service research: early steps and current drivers. Ambio. 39(4):314–324.
136. Villamagna AM, Angermeier PL, Bennett EM. 2013. Capacity, pressure, demand, and flow: a conceptual framework for analyzing ecosystem service provision and delivery. Ecological Comp. 15:114–121.
137. Vision 2030. 2013. Second mid-term plan 2013–2017. Government of Kenya; [accessed 2018 Sep12]. http://vision2030.go.ke/inc/uploads/2018/05/Second-Medium-Term-Plan-2013-2017.pdf.
138. von Döhren P, Haase D. 2015. Ecosystem disservices research: a review of the state of the art with a focus on cities. Ecol Indic. 52:490–497.
139. von Thünen J. 1826. The Isolated State. English edition. London: Pergamon Press.
140. Vrebos D, Staes J, Vandenbroucke T, D׳Haeyer T, Johnston R, Muhumuza M, Kasabeke C, Meire P. 2015. Mapping ecosystem service flows with land cover scoring maps for data-scarce regions. Ecosystem Serv. 13:28–40.
141. Wallace KJ. 2007. Classification of ecosystem services: problems and solutions. Biol Conserv. 139:235–246.
142. Waltham NJ, Sheaves M. 2015. Expanding coastal urban and industrial seascape in the great barrier reef world heritage area: critical need for coordinated planning and policy. Marine Policy. 57:78–84.
143. Wangai P, Muriithi JK, Koenig A. 2013. Drought related impacts on local people’s socioeconomic life and biodiversity conservation at Kuku Group Ranch, Southern Kenya. Int J Ecosystem. 3(1):1–6.
144. Wangai PW, Burkhard B, Müller F. 2016. A review of studies on ecosystem services in Africa. IJSBE. 5(2):225–245.
145. Whitaker BE, Giersch J. 2009. Voting on a constitution: implications for democracy in Kenya. J Contemp Afr Stud. 27(1):1–20.
146. Wolff S, Schulp CJE, Verburg PH. 2015. Mapping ecosystem services demand: a review of current research and future perspectives. Ecol Indic. 55:159–171.
147. Wu J. 2014. Urban ecology and sustainability: the state-of-the-science and future directions. Landscape Urban Plan. 125:209–221.
148. Yang L, Zhang L, Li Y, Wu S. 2015. Landscape and urban planning water-related ecosystem services provided by urban green space: a case study in Yixing City (China). Landsc Urban Plan. 136:40–51.
149. Zhou J, Zhang X, Shen L. 2015a. Urbanization bubble: four quadrants measurement model. Cities. 46:8–15.
150. Zhou Y, Smith SJ, Zhao K, Imhoff M, Thomson A, Bond-Lamberty B, Asrar G, Zhang X, He C, Elvidge CD. 2015b. A global map of urban extent from nightlights. Environ Res Lett. 10(5):054011.