Nonnative invasive plants: Maintaining biotic and socioeconomic integrity along the urban-rural-natural area gradient

Urban-Rural Interfaces: Linking People and Nature

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 71-98

  Huebner, Cynthia D ^a   Nowak, David J ^b   Pouyat, Richard V ^b   Bodine, Allison R ^b  

^a NORTHERN RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^b USDA FOREST SERVICE   (United States)

Author keywords

Biodiversity hot spots; Biotic interactions; Management solutions; Mitigation efforts; Nonnative invasive plants; Rehabilitation; Socioeconomic integrity; Urban rural natural area gradient

Indexed keywords

EID: 85035149023     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.2136/2012.urban-rural.c5     Document Type: Chapter

References (248)

1. Agrawal, A.A., P.M. Kotanen, C.E. Mitchell, A.G. Power, W. Godsoe, and J. Klironomos. 2005. Enemy release? An experiment with congeneric plant pairs and diverse aboveand belowground enemies. Ecology 86(11):2979-2989. doi:10.1890/05-0219
2. Alig, R.J., J.D. Kline, and M. Lichtenstein. 2004. Urbanization on the U.S. landscape: Looking ahead in the 21st century. Landscape Urban Plan. 69:219-234. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.07.004
3. Alpert, P., E. Bone, and C. Holzapfel. 2000. Invasiveness, invasibility and the role of environmental stress in the spread of non-native plants. Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst. 3(1):52-66. doi:10.1078/1433-8319-00004
4. Alston, K.P., and D.M. Richardson. 2006. The roles of habitat features, disturbance, and distance from putative source populations in structuring alien plant invasions at the urban/wildland interface on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. Biol. Conserv. 132:183-198. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.03.023
5. Alvey, A.A. 2006. Promoting and preserving biodiversity in the urban forest. Urban For. Urban Green. 5:195-201. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2006.09.003
6. Bakker, J.D., S.D. Wilson, J.M. Christian, X. Li, L.G. Ambrose, and J. Waddington. 2003. Ecol. Appl. 13(1):137-153. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0137:COGROY]2.0.CO;2
7. Bartuszevige, A.M., R.L. Hrenko, and D.L. Gorchov. 2007. Effects of leaf litter on establishment, growth and survival of invasive plant seedlings in a deciduous forest. Am. Midl. Nat. 158(2):474-477.
8. Belnap, J., S.L. Phillips, S.K. Sherrod, and A. Moldenke. 2005. Soil biota can change after exotic plant invasion: Does this effect ecosystem processes? Ecology 86(11):3007-3017. doi:10.1890/05-0333
9. Bolund, P., and S. Hunhammar. 1999. Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecol. Econ. 29:293-301. doi:10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00013-0
10. Botkin, D.B., and C.E. Beveridge. 1997. Cities as environments. Urban Ecosyst. 1:3-19. doi:10.1023/A:1014354923367
11. Burchell, R., D. Listokin, and C.C. Galley. 2000. Smart growth: More than a ghost of urban policy past, less than a bold new horizon. Hous. Policy Debate 11:821-879. doi:10.1080/10511482.2000.9521390
12. Burton, M.L., S.J. Samuelson, and S. Pan. 2005. Riparian woody plant diversity and forest structure along an urban-rural gradient. Urban Ecosyst. 8:93-106. doi:10.1007/s11252-005-1421-6
13. California Invasive Species Advisory Committee. 2010. The California Invasive Species List. http://www.iscc.ca.gov/docs/CaliforniaInvasiveSpeciesList.pdf. (accessed June 2011).
14. Callaway, R.M., and J.L. Maron. 2006 What have exotic plant invasions taught us over the past 20 years? Trends Ecol. Evol. 21(7):369-374. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.04.008
15. Cappuccino, N., and J.T. Arnason. 2006. Novel chemistry of invasive exotic plants. Biol. Lett. 2:189-193. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0433
16. Carreiro, M.M. 2005. Effects of urban sprawl on decomposer communities and soil processes in forest remnants. In: E.A. Johnson and M.W. Klemens, editors, Nature in fragments: The legacy of sprawl. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
17. Carreiro, M.M., R.V. Pouyat, C. Tripler, and W. Zhu. 2009. Carbon and nitrogen cycling in soils of remnant forests along urban-rural gradients: Case studies in the New York metropolitan area and Louisville, Kentucky. In: M.J. McDonnell, A. Hahs, and J. Breuste editors, Ecology of cities and towns: A comparative approach. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK. p. 308-328.
18. Celesti-Grapow, L., and C. Blasi. 1998. A comparison of the urban flora of different phytoclimatic regions in Italy. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. Lett. 7:367-378. doi:10.2307/2997684
19. Celesti-Grapow, L., P. Pyšek, V. Jarošík, and C. Blasi. 2006. Determinants of native and alien species richness in the urban flora of Rome. Divers. Distrib. 12:490-501. doi:10.1111/j.1366-9516.2006.00282.x
20. Claridge, K., and S.B. Franklin. 2002. Compensation and plasticity in an invasive plant species. Biological Invas. 4:339-347. doi:10.1023/A:1023671006342
21. Clemants, S.E., and G. Moore. 2003. Patterns of species richness in eight northeastern United States cities. Urban Habitats 1:4-15.
22. Clemants, S.E., and G. Moore. 2005. The changing flora of the New York Metropolitan Region. Urban Habitats 3(1):192-210.
23. Cohen, B. 2004. Urban growth in developing countries: A review of current trends and a caution regarding existing forecasts. World Dev. 32(1):23-51. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2003.04.008
24. Cohen, B. 2006. Urbanization in developing countries: Current trends, future projections, and key challenges for sustainability. Technol. Soc. 28:63-80. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.10.005
25. Colautti, R.I., I.A. Grigorovich, and H.J. MacIsaac. 2006. Propagule pressure: A null model for biological invasions. Biol. Invas. 8:1023-1037. doi:10.1007/s10530-005-3735-y
26. Collins, M.D., D.P. Vázquez, and N.J. Sanders. 2002. Speciesarea curves, homogenization and the loss of global diversity. Evol. Ecol. Res. 4:457-464.
27. Cramer, V.A., R.J. Hobbs, and R.J. Standish. 2008. What’s new about old fields: Land abandonment and ecosystem assembly. Trends Ecol. Evol. 23(2):104-112. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.10.005
28. Crooks, J.A. 2005. Lag times and exotic species: The ecology and management of biological invasions in slow-motion. Ecoscience 12(3):316-329. doi:10.2980/i1195-6860-12-3-316.1
29. Daehler, C.C. 2001. Darwin’s naturalization hypothesis revisited. Am. Nat. 158(3):324-330. doi:10.1086/321316
30. Daehler, C.C. 2003. Performance comparisons of co-occuring native and alien invasive plants: Implications for conservation and restoration. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 34:183-211. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132403
31. D’Antonio, C., and L.A. Meyerson. 2002. Exotic plant species as problems and solutions in ecological restoration: A synthesis. Restor. Ecol. 10(4):703-713. doi:10.1046/j.1526-100X.2002.01051.x
32. Darwin, C. 1859. The origin of species. John Murray, London.
33. Davies, T.J., G.F. Smith, D.U. Bellstedt, J.S. Boatwright, B. Bytebier, R.M. Cowling, F. Forest, L.J. Harmon, A. M. Muasya, B.D. Schrire, Y. Steenkamp, M. van der Bank, and V. Savolainen. 2011. Extinction risk and diversification are linked in a plant biodiversity hotspot. PLoS 9(5):1-9.
34. Davis, M.A. 2003. Biotica globalization: Does competition from introduced species threaten biodiversity? BioScience 53(5):481-489. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0481:BGDCFI]2.0.CO;2
35. Davis, M.A., M.K. Chew, R.J. Hobbs, A.E. Lugo, J.J. Ewel, G.J. Vermeij, J.H. Brown, M.L. Rosenzweig, M.R. Gardener, S.P. Carroll, K. Thompson, S.T.A. Pickett, J.C. Stromberg, P.D. Tredici, K. N. Suding, J.G. Ehrenfeld, J.P. Grime, J. Mascaro, and J.C. Briggs. 2011. Don’t judge species on their origins. Nature 474:153-154. doi:10.1038/474153a
36. DeCandido, R. 2004. Recent changes in plant species diversity in urban Pelham Bay Park, 1947-1198. Biol. Conserv. 120:129-136. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.02.005
37. Dehnen-Schmutz, K., J. Touza, C. Perrings and M. Williamson. 2007. A century of the ornamental plant trade and its impact on invasion success. Diversity Distrib. 13:527-534. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00359.x
38. Didham, R.K., J.M. Tylianakis, M.A. Hutchinson, R.M. Ewers and N.J. Gemmell. 2005. Are invasive species the drivers of ecological change? Trends Ecol. Evol. 20(9):470-474. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.07.006
39. Dirr, M.A. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants. Stipes Publ., LLC, Champaign, IL.
40. Donath, T.W., N. Hotzel, and A. Otte. 2003. The impact of site conditions and seed dispersal on restoration success in alluvial meadows. Appl. Veg. Sci. 6:13-22. doi:10.1111/j.1654-109X.2003.tb00560.x
41. Downs, A. 2005. Smart growth: Why we discuss it more than we do it. J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 71(4):367-380. doi:10.1080/01944360508976707
42. Duggan, I.C., C.A.M. Rixon, and H.J. MacIsaac. 2006. Popularity and propagule pressure: Determinants of introduction and establishment of aquarium fish. Biol. Invas. 8:377-382. doi:10.1007/s10530-004-2310-2
43. Duguay, S., F. Eigenbrod, and L. Fahrig. 2007. Effects of surrounding urbanization on non-native flora in small forest patches. Landscape Ecol. 22:589-599. doi:10.1007/s10980-006-9050-x
44. Duncan, R.P., and P.A. Williams. 2002. Darwin’s naturalization hypothesis challenged. Nature 417:608-609. doi:10.1038/417608a
45. Ehrenfeld, J.G. 2003. Effects of exotic plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling processes. Ecosystems 6:503-523. doi:10.1007/s10021-002-0151-3
46. Ellis, E.C., H. Wang, H.S. Xiao, K. Peng, X. P. Liu, S.C. Li, H. Ouyang, X. Cheng, and L.Z. Yang. 2006. Measuring long-term ecological changes in densely populated landscapes using current and historical high resolution imagery. Remote Sens. Environ. 100:457-473. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2005.11.002
47. Eppinga, M.B., M. Rietkerk, S.C. Dekker, and P.C. De Ruiter. 2006. Accumulation of local pathogens: Anew hypothesis to explain exotic plant invasions. Oikos 114(1):168-176. doi:10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.14625.x
48. Ewel, J.J., and F.E. Putz. 2004. A place for alien species in ecosystem restoration. Frontiers in Ecol. Environ. 2(7):354-360. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0354:APFASI]2.0.CO;2
49. Faeth, S.H., P.S. Warren, E. Shochat, and W.A. Marussich. 2005. Trophic dynamics in urban communities. BioScience 55(5):399-407. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0399:TDIUC]2.0.CO;2
50. Fargione, J., C.S. Brown, and D. Tilman. 2003. Community assembly and invasion: An experimental test of neutral versus niche processes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 100(15):8916-8920.
51. Foss, L.K., and L.K. Rieske. 2003. Species-specific differences in oak foliage affect preference and performance of gypsy moth caterpillars. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 108:87-93. doi:10.1046/j.1570-7458.2003.00067.x
52. Franklin, J. 2007. Recovery from clearing, cyclone and fire in rain forests of Tonga, South Pacific: Vegetation dynamics 1995-2005. Austral Ecol. 32:789-797. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2007.01766.x
53. Franklin, J.F., and R.T.T. Forman. 1987. Creating landscape pattern by forest cutting: Ecological consequences and principles. Landscape Ecol. 1:5-18. doi:10.1007/BF02275261
54. Franklin, J.F., T.A. Spies, S. Van Pelt, A.B. Carey, D. A. Thornburgh, D. R. Berg, D.B. Lindenmayer, M.E. Harmon, W.S. Keeton, D.C. Shaw, K. Bible, and J. Chen. 2002. Disturbances and structural development of natural forest ecosystems with silvicultural implications, using Douglasfir forests as an example. For. Ecol. Manage. 155:399-423. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00575-8
55. Franks, S.J., and A.E. Weis. 2009. Climate change alters reproductive isolation and potential gene flow in an annual plant. Evol. Appl. 2(4):481-488. doi:10.1111/j.1752-4571.2009.00073.x
56. Funk, J.L. 2008. Differences in plasticity between invasive and native plants from a low resource environment. J. Ecol. 96:1162-1173. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2008.01435.x
57. Gavier-Pizarro, G.I., V.C. Radeloff, S.I. Stewart, C.D. Huebner, and N.S. Keuler. 2010a. Housing is positively associated with invasive exotic plant species richness in New England, USA. Ecol. Appl. 20(7):1913-1925. doi:10.1890/09-2168.1
58. Gavier-Pizarro, G.I., V.C. Radeloff, S.I. Stewart, C.D. Huebner, and N.S. Keuler. 2010b. Rural housing is related to plant invasions in forests of southern Wisconsin, USA. Landscape Ecology 25:1505-1518. doi:10.1007/s10980-010-9516-8
59. Gilbert, B., and M.J. Lechowicz. 2005. Invasibilty and abiotic gradients: The positive correlation between native and exotic plant diversity. Ecol. 86(7):1848-1855. doi:10.1890/04-09997
60. Gill, S.E., J.F. Handley, A.R. Ennos, and S. Pauleit. 2007. Adapting cities for climate change: The role of the green infrastructure. Built Environ. 33(1):115-133. doi:10.2148/benv.33.1.115
61. Given, D. 1990. Conserving botanical diversity on a global scale. Annu Missouri Bot. Gardens 77:48-62. doi:10.2307/2399624
62. Godefroid, S., and N. Koedam. 2003. Distribution pattern of the flora in a peri-urban forest: An effect of the city-forest ecotone. Landscape Urban Plan. 65:169-185. doi:10.1016/S0169-2046(03)00013-6
63. Gómez-Aparicio, L., and C.D. Canham. 2008a. Neighborhood analyses of the allelopathic effects of the invasive tree Ailanthus altissima in temperate forests. J. Ecol. 96:447-458. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01352.x
64. Gómez-Aparicio, L., and C.D. Canham. 2008b. Neighborhood models of the effects of invasive tree species on ecosystem processes. Ecol. Monogr. 78(1):69-86. doi:10.1890/06-2036.1
65. Gosper, C.R., C.D. Stansbury, and G. Vivian-Smith. 2005. Seed dispersal of fleshy-fruited invasive plants by birds: Contributing factors and management options. Divers. Distrib. 11:549-558. doi:10.1111/j.1366-9516.2005.00195.x
66. Grimm, N.B., S.H. Faeth, N.E. Golubiewski, C.L. Redman, J. Wu, X. Bai, and J.M. Briggs. 2008. Global change and the ecology of cities. Science 319:756-760. doi:10.1126/science.1150195
67. Grove, J.M., J. O’Neil-Dunne, K. Pelletier, D. Nowak, and J. Walton. 2006a. A report on New York City’s present and possible urban tree canopy. Forestry and Horticulture, Dep. of Parks and Recreation, New York City, NY.
68. Grove, J.M., A.R. Troy, J.P.M. O’Neil-Dunne, W.R. Burch Jr., M.L. Cadenasso, and S.T.A. Pickett. 2006b. Characterization of households and its implications for the vegetation of urban ecosystems. Ecosystems 9:578-597. doi:10.1007/s10021-006-0116-z
69. Guo, Q., H. Qian, R.E. Ricklefs, and W. Xi. 2006. Distributions of exotic plants in eastern Asia and North America. Ecol. Lett. 9:827-834. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00938.x
70. Gurevitch, J., and D.K. Padilla. 2004. Are invasive species a major cause of extinctions? Trends Ecol. Evol. 19(9):470-474. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004.07.005
71. Hahs, A.K., M.J. McDonnell, M.A. McCarthy, P.A. Vesky, R.T. Corlett, B.A. Norton, S.E. Clements, R.P. Duncan, K. Thompson, M.W. Schwartz, and N.S.G. Williams. 2009. A global synthesis of plant extinction rates in urban areas. Ecol. Lett. 12:1165-1173. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01372.x
72. Hammer, R.B., S.I. Stewart, and V.C. Radeloff. 2009. Demographic trends, the wildland-urban interface, and wildfire management. Soc. Nat. Resour. 22:777-782. doi:10.1080/08941920802714042
73. Hanski I., and O. Ovaskainen. 2003. Metapopulation theory for fragmented landscapes. Theoretical Population Biology 64:119-127. doi:10.1016/S0040-5809(03)00022-4
74. Hartman, K., and B.C. McCarthy. 2004. Restoration of a forest understory after the removal of an invasive shrub, Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii). Restor. Ecol. 12(2):154-165. doi:10.1111/j.1061-2971.2004.00368.x
75. Haas, C.A. 1995. Dispersal and use of corridors by birds in wooded patches on an agricultural landscape. Conserv. Biol. 9(4):845-854. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09040845.x
76. Hejda, M., and P. Pyšek. 2006. What is the impact of Impatiens glandulifera on species diversity of invaded riparian vegetation? Biol. Conserv. 132:143-152. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.03.025
77. Hess, G.R. 1994. Conservation corridors and contagious disease: A cautionary note. Conserv. Biol. 8(1):256-262. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010256.x
78. Hobbs, R.J. 2001. Synergisms among habitat fragmentation, livestock grazing, and biotic invasions in Southwestern Australia. Conserv. Biol. 15(6):1522-1528. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.01092.x
79. Hobbs, R.J., S. Arico, J. Aronson, J. S. Baron, P. Bridgewater, V. A. Cramer, P.R. Epstein, J.J. Ewel, C. A. Klink, a. E. Lugo, D. Norton, D. Ojima, D. M. Richardson, R.W. Sanderson, F. Valladoares, M. Vilà, R. Zamora, and M. Zobel. 2006. Novel ecosystems: Theoretical and management aspects of the new ecological order. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 15:1-7. doi:10.1111/j.1466-822X.2006.00212.x
80. Hobbs, R.J., and L.F. Huenneke. 1992. Disturbance, diversity, and invasion: Implications for conservation. Conserv. Biol. 6(3):324-337. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.06030324.x
81. Hobbs, R.J., and C.J. Yates. 2003. Impacts of ecosystem fragmentation on plant populations: Generalising the idiosyncratic. Aus. J. Bot. 51:471-488. doi:10.1071/BT03037
82. Holdaway, R.J., and A.D. Sparrow. 2006. Assembly rules operating along a primary riverbed-grassland successional sequence. J. Ecol. 94:1092-1102. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2006.01170.x
83. Hope, D., C. Gries, W. Zhu, W.F. Fagan, C.L. Redman, N.B. Grimm, A.L. Nelson, C. Martin, and A. Kinzig. 2003. Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity. Proc. Natl. Acd. Sci. 100 (15):8788-8792. doi:10.1073/pnas.1537557100
84. Huebner, C.D. 2005. Competitive ability of Ailanthus altissima and an overview of other RWU-4557 invasive plant studies. In: Proc. 16th USDA interagency research forum gypsy moth and other invasive species. GTR-NE-337. p. 45.
85. Huebner, C.D., and P.C. Tobin. 2006. Invasibility of mature and 15-year-old deciduous forests by exotic plants. Plant Ecol. 186:57-68. doi:10.1007/s11258-006-9112-9
86. Huebner, C.D., C. Olson, and H. Smith. 2007. Invasive plants field and reference guide: An ecological perspective of plant invaders of forests and woodlands and supplements 1 and 2. NA-TP-05-04. USDA Forest Service, Northern Area State and Private Forestry, Newtown Square, PA.
87. Huebner, C.D. 2011. Seed mass, viability, and germination of Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum) under variable light and moisture conditions. Invas. Plant Sci. Manage. 4:274-283. doi:10.1614/IPSM-D-10-00090.1
88. Hulme, P.E., and E.T. Bremner. 2006. Assessing the impact of Impatiens glandulifera on riparian habitats: Partitioning diversity components following species removal. J. Appl. Ecol. 43:43-50. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01102.x
89. Hutchinson, T.F., and J.I. Vankat. 1998. Landscape structure and spread of the exotic shrub Lonicera maackii (Amur honeysuckle) in southwestern Ohio forests. Am. Midl. Nat. 139:383-390. doi:10.1674/0003-0031(1998)139[0383:LSASOT]2.0.CO;2
90. Jablonski, D. 1986. Mass extinctions: New answers, new questions. In: L. Kaufman and K. Mallory editors, The last extinction. MIT, Cambridge, MA. p. 43-62.
91. Johnson, L. 2010. City farmer. Graystone Books, Vancouver, BC, Canada. p. 1-256.
92. Kagata, H., and T. Ohgushi. 2006. Bottom-up tropic cascades and material transfer in terrestrial food webs. Ecol. Res. 21:26-34. doi:10.1007/s11284-005-0124-z
93. Kareiva, P., S. Watts, R. McDonald, and T. Boucher. 2007. Domesticated nature: Shaping landscapes and ecosystems for human welfare. Science 316:1866-1869. doi:10.1126/science.1140170
94. Kennedy, T.A., S. Naeem, K.M. Howe, J.M.H. Knops, D. Tilman, and P. Reich. 2002. Biodiversity as a barrier to ecological invasion. Nature 417:636-638. doi:10.1038/nature00776
95. Kleczewski, N.M., and S.L. Flory. 2010. Leaf blight disease on the invasive grass Microstegium vimineum caused by a Bipolaris sp. Plant Dis. 94:807-811. doi:10.1094/PDIS-94-7-0807
96. Kostel-Hughes, F., T.P. Young, and M.M. Carreiro. 1998a. Forest leaf litter quantity and seedling occurrence along an urban-rural gradient. Urban Ecosyst. 2:263-278. doi:10.1023/A:1009536706827
97. Kostel-Hughes, F., T.P. Young, and M.J. McDonnell. 1998b. The soil seed bank and its relationship to the aboveground vegetation in deciduous forests in New York City. Urban Ecosystems 2:43-59. doi:10.1023/A:1009541213518
98. Kowarik, I. 1995. Time lags in biological invasions with regards to the success and failure of alien species. In: P. Pyšek et al. editors, Plant invasions: General aspects and special problems. SPB Academic Publ., Amsterdam. p. 85-103.
99. Kowarik, I. 2008. On the role of alien species in urban flora and vegetation. In: J.M. Marzluff et al., editors, Urban ecology. Springer, New York. p. 321- 338.
100. Kowarik, I. 2011. Novel urban ecosystems, biodiversity, and conservation. Environ. Pollut. 159:1974-1983. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2011.02.022
101. Křivánek, M., P. Pyšek, and V. Jarošík. 2006. Planting history and propagule pressure as predictors of invasion by woody species in a temperate region. Conserv. Biol. 20(5):1487-1498. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00477.x
102. Krueger-Mangold, J.M., R.L. Sheley, and T.J. Svejcar. 2006. Toward ecologically-based invasive plant management on rangeland. Weed Science 54:597-605. doi:10.1614/WS-05-049R3.1
103. Kuhman, T.R., S.M. Pearson, and M.G. Turner. 2011. Agricultural land-use history increases non-native plant invasion in a southern Appalachian forest a century after abandonment. Can. J. For. Res. 41:920-929. doi:10.1139/x11-026
104. Kühn, I., and S. Klotz. 2006. Urbanization and homogenization-comparing the floras of urban and rural areas in Germany. Biol. Conserv. 127: 292-300. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.06.033
105. Kumar, S., T.J. Stohlgren, and G.W. Chong. 2006. Spatial heterogeneity influences native and non-native plant species richness. Ecology 87(12):3186-3199. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[3186:SHINAN]2.0.CO;2
106. Kuusipalo, J., G. Adjers, Y Jafarsidik, A. Otasamo, K. Tuomela, and R. Vuokko. 1995. Restoration of natural vegetation in degraded Imperata cylindrica grassland: Understorey development in forest plantations. J. Veg. Sci. 6:205-210. doi:10.2307/3236215
107. La Sorte, F.A., M.L. McKinney, and P. Pyšek. 2007. Compositional similarity among urban floras within and across continents: Biogeographical consequences of humanmediated biotic interchange. Global Change Biol. 13:913-921. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01329.x
108. Lambdon, P.W., and P.E. Hulme. 2006. How strongly do interactions with closely-related native species influence plant invasions? Darwin’s naturalization hypothesis assessed on Mediterranean islands. J. Biogeogr. 33:1116-1125. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01486.x
109. Lambrinos, J.G. 2000. The impact of invasive alien grass Cortaderia jubata (Lemoine) Stapf. on an endangered Mediterranean-type shrubland in California. Divers. Distrib. 6:217-231. doi:10.1046/j.1472-4642.2000.00086.x
110. Lavergne, S., W. Thuiller, J. Molina, and M. Debussche. 2005. Environmental and human factors influencing rare plant local occurrence, extinction and persistence: A 115 year study in the Mediterranean region. J. Biogeogr. 32:799-811. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01207.x
111. Leishman, M.R., and V.P. Thomson. 2005. Experimental evidence for the effects of additional water, nutrients and physical disturbance on invasive plants in low fertility Hawkesbury Sandstone soils, Sydney. Aust. J. Ecol. 93: 38-49.
112. Levine, J.M., P.B. Adler, and S.G. Yelenik. 2004. A meta-analysis of biotic resistance to exotic plant invasions. Ecol. Lett. 7:975-989. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00657.x
113. Levine, J.M., M. Vilà, C.M. D’Antonio, J.S. Dukes, K. Grigulis, and S. Lavorel. 2003. Mechanisms underlying the impacts of exotic plant invasions. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 270:775-781. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2327
114. Lockwood, J.L., P. Cassey, and T. Blackburn. 2005. The role of propagule pressure in explaining species invasions. Trends Ecol Evol 20(5):223-228. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.02.004
115. Lockwood, J.L., P. Cassey, and T.M. Blackburn. 2009. The more you introduce the more you get: The role of colonization pressure and propagule pressure in invasion ecology. Divers. Distrib. 15:904-910. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2009.00594.x
116. Loewenstein, N.J., and E.F. Loewenstein. 2005. Non-native plants in the understory of riparian forests across a land use gradient in the Southeast. Urban Ecosyst. 8:79-91. doi:10.1007/s11252-005-1420-7
117. Long, J.D., G.C. Trussell, and T. Elliman. 2009. Linking invasions and biogeography: Isolation differentially affects exotic and native plant diversity. Ecology 90(4):863-868. doi:10.1890/08-1337.1
118. Lovett, G.M., M.M. Traynor, R.V. Pouyat, M.M. Carreiro, W.X. Zhu, and J.W. Baxter. 2000. Atmospheric deposition to oak forests along an urban-rural gradient. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34(20):4294-4300. doi:10.1021/es001077q
119. Luck, G.W., L.T. Smallbone, and R. O’Brien. 2009. Socio-economics and vegetation change in urban ecosystems: Patterns in space and time. Ecosystems 12: 604-620. doi:10.1007/s10021-009-9244-6
120. Lugo, A.E. 2004. The outcome of alien tree invasions in Puerto Rico. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2(5):265-273. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0265:TOOATI]2.0.CO;2
121. Lugo, A.E. 2009. The emerging era of novel tropical forests. Biotropica 41(5):589-591. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00550.x
122. Maas, J., R.A. Verheij, P.P. Groenewegen, S. de Vries, and P. Spreeuwenberg. 2006. Green space, urbanity, and health: How strong is the relation? J. Epidemiol. Community Health 60:587-592. doi:10.1136/jech.2005.043125
123. MacDougall, A.S., and R. Turkington. 2005. Are invasive species the drivers or passengers of change in degraded ecosystems. Ecology 86(1):42-55. doi:10.1890/04-0669
124. MacDougall, A.S., J. Boucher, R. Turkington, and G.E. Bradfield. 2006. Patterns of plant invasion along an environmental stress gradient. J. Veg. Sci. 17:47-56. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2006.tb02422.x
125. Maestas, J. D., R.L. Knight, and W.C. Gilgert. 2003. Biodiversity across a rural land-use gradient. Conserv. Biol. 17(5):1425-1434. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.02371.x
126. Maillet, J., and C. Lopez-Garcia. 2000. What criteria are relevant for predicting the invasive capacity of a new agricultural weed? The case of invasive American species in France. Weed Res. 40:11-26. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3180.2000.00171.x
127. Mack, M.C., and C.M. D’Antonio. 1998. Impacts of biological invasions on disturbance regimes. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13(5):195-198.
128. Mangla, S. I., and R.M. Callaway. 2008. Exotic invasive plant accumulates native soil pathogens which inhibit native plants. J. Ecol. 96:58-67.
129. Marler, M.J., C.A. Zabinski, and R.M. Callaway. 1999. Mycorrhizae indirectly enhance competitive effects of an invasive forb on a native bunchgrass. Ecology 80:1180-1186. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[1180:MIECEO]2.0.CO;2
130. Maron, J.L., M. Vilà, and J. Arnason. 2004. Loss of enemy resistance among introduced populations of St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum). Ecology 85:3243-3253. doi:10.1890/04-0297
131. Marshall, J.M., and D.S. Buckley. 2008. Effects of microsites created by selective harvesting on growth of Microstegium vimineum in a central hardwood forest. For. Sci. 54(5):534-542.
132. Martin, C.A., P.S. Warren, and A.P. Kinzig. 2004. Neighborhood socioeconomic status is a useful predictor of perennial landscape vegetation in residential neighbourhoods and embedded small parks of Phoenix, AZ. Landscape Urban Plan. 69:355-368. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.10.034
133. Martin, P.H., C.D. Canham, and P.L. Marks. 2009. Why forests appear resistant to exotic plant invasions: Intentional introductions, stand dynamics, and the role of shade tolerance. Front. Ecol. Environ. 7(3):142-149. doi:10.1890/070096
134. Martin, P.H., and P.L. Marks. 2006. Intact forests provide only weak resistance to a shade-tolerant invasive Norway Maple (Acer platanoides L.). J. Ecol. 94:1070-1079. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2006.01159.x
135. Matlack, G.R. 1994. Vegetation dynamics of the forest edge-trends in space and successional time. J. Ecol. 82:113-123. doi:10.2307/2261391
136. McDonald, R.I., P. Kareiva, and R.T.T. Forman. 2008. The implications of current and future urbanization for global protected areas and biodiversity conservation. Biol. Conserv. 141:1695-1703. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.04.025
137. McDonnell, M.J., S.T.A. Pickett, P. Groffman, P. Bohlen, R.V. Pouyat, W. Zipperer, R.W. Parmelee, M.M. Carreiro, and K. Medley. 1997. Ecosystem processes along an urban-to-rural gradient. Urban Ecosyst. 1:21-36. doi:10.1023/A:1014359024275
138. McKinney, M.L. 2004. Measuring floristic homogenization by non-native plants in North America. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 13:47-53. doi:10.1111/j.1466-882X.2004.00059.x
139. McKinney, M.L. 2005. Species introduced from nearby sources have a more homogenizing effect than species from distance sources: Evidence from plants and fishes in the USA. Divers. Distrib. 11:367-374. doi:10.1111/j.1366-9516.2005.00181.x
140. McKinney, M.L. 2006. Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol. Conserv. 127:247-260. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.09.005
141. McKinney, M.L., and J.L. Lockwood. 1999. Biotic homogenization: A few winners replacing many losers in the next mass extinction. Trends Ecol. Evol. 14(11):450-453. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(99)01679-1
142. McPherson, E.G., D. Nowak, G. Heisler, S. Grimmond, C. Souch, R. Grant, and R. Rowntree. 1997. Quantifying urban forest structure, function, and value: The Chicago urban forest climate project. Urban Ecosyst. 1:49-61. doi:10.1023/A:1014350822458
143. Minor, E.S., S.M. Tessel, K.A.M. Engelhardt, and T.R. Lookingbill. 2009. The role of landscape connectivity in assembling exotic plant communities: A network analysis. Ecology 90(7):1802-1809. doi:10.1890/08-1015.1
144. Mitchell, C.E., A.A. Agrawal, J.D. Bever, G.S. Gilbert, R.A. Hufvauer, J.N. Klironomos, J. L. Maron, W.F. Morris, I.M. Parker, A.G. Power, E.W. Seabloom, M.E. Torchin, and D.P. Vazquez. 2006. Biotic interactions and plant invasions. Ecol. Lett. 9:726-740. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00908.x
145. Mitchell, C.E., and A.G. Power. 2003. Release of invasive plants from fungal and viral pathogens. Nature 421:625-627. doi:10.1038/nature01317
146. Moffatt, S.F., and S.M. McLachlan. 2004. Understorey indicators of disturbance for riparian forests along an urbanrural gradient in Manitoba. Ecol. Indicators 4:1-16. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2003.08.002
147. Moffatt, S.F., S.M. McLachlan, and N.C. Kenkel. 2004. Impacts of land use on riparian forest along an urban- rural gradient in southern Manitoba. Plant Ecol. 174:119-135. doi:10.1023/B:VEGE.0000046055.27285.fd
148. Moles, A.T., M.A.M. Gruber, and S.P. Bonser. 2008. A new framework for predicting invasive plant species. J. Ecol. 96:13-17.
149. Montgomery, M.R. 2008. The urban transformation of the developing world. Science 319: 761-764. doi:10.1126/science.1153012
150. Murrell, C., E. Gerber, C. Krebs, M. Parepa, U. Schaffner, and O. Bossdorf. 2011. Invasive knotweed affects native plants through allelopathy. Am. J. Bot. 98(1):38-43. doi:10.3732/ajb.1000135
151. Naeem, S., J.M.H. Knops, D. Tilman, K.M. Howe, T. Kennedy, and S. Gale. 2000. Plant diversity increases resistance to invasion in the absence of covarying extrinsic factors. Oikos 91:97-108. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.910108.x
152. National Invasive Species Council. 2011. National Invasive Species Management Plan 2008-2012. http://www.invasivespecies.gov (accessed October 2011).
153. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. 2011. Interim Invasive Species Plant List. http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/65408.html (accessed June 2011).
154. Niemelä, J. 1999. Is there a need for a theory of urban ecology? Urban Ecosyst. 3:57-65. doi:10.1023/A:1009595932440
155. Niemiera, A.X., and B. Von Holle. 2009. Invasive plant species and the ornamental horticultural industry. In: Inderjit, editor, Management of invasive weeds. Springer, Center for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, Delhi, India. p. 167-187.
156. Nowak, D.J. 2010. Urban biodiversity and climate change. In: N. Muller, P. Werner, and J.G. Kelcey editors, Urban biodiversity and design. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ. p. 101-117.
157. Nowak, D.J., D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens, R.E. Hoehn, J.T. Walton, and J. Bond. 2008. A ground-based method of assessing urban forest structure and ecosystem services. Arboric. Urban For. 34(6):347-358.
158. Nowak, D.J., D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens, and M. Ibarra. 2002. Brooklyn’s urban forest. General Tech. Rep. NE-290. USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA.
159. Nowak, D.J., M.H. Noble, S.M. Sisinni, and JF. Dwyer. 2001. People & trees: Assessing the U.S. urban forest resource. J. For. 99(3):37-42.
160. Nowak, D.J., and J.T. Walton. 2005. Projected urban growth (2000-2050) and its estimated impact on the U.S. forest resource. J. For. 103(8):383-389.
161. Oke, T.R. 1995. The heat island of the urban boundary layer: Characteristics, causes, and effects. In: J.E. Cermak et al. editors, Wind climate in cities. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. p. 81-107.
162. Olden, J.D., N. LeRoy, and M.L. McKinney. 2006. Forecasting faunal and floral homogenization associated with human population geography in North America. Biol. Conserv. 127: 261-271. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.04.027
163. Olden, J.D., and T.P. Rooney. 2006. On defining and quantifying biotic homogenization. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 15:113-120. doi:10.1111/j.1466-822X.2006.00214.x
164. Parker, I.M., and G.S. Gilbert. 2007. When there is no escape: The effects of natural enemies on native, invasive, and noninvasive plants. Ecology 88:1210-1224. doi:10.1890/06-1377
165. Parker, J.D., and M.E. Hay. 2005. Biotic resistance to plant invasions? Native herbivores prefer non-native plants. Ecol. Letters 8:959-967. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00799.x
166. Pauchard, A., M. Aguayo, E. Peña, and R. Urrutia. 2006. Multiple effects of urbanization on the biodiversity of developing countries: The case of a fast-growing metropolitan area (Concepción, Chile). Biol. Conserv. 127:272-281. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.05.015
167. Pearman, P.B., A. Guisan, O. Broennimann, and C.F. Randin. 2008. Niche dynamics in space and time. Trends Ecol. Evol. 23(3):149-158. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.11.005
168. Pemberton, R.W, and H. Liu. 2009. Marketing time predicts naturalization of horticultural plants. Ecology 90:69-80. doi:10.1890/07-1516.1
169. Pickett, S.T.A., W.R. Burch, Jr., S.E. Dalton, T.W. Foresman, J. M. Grove, and R. Rowntree. 1997. A conceptual framework for the study of human ecosystems in urban areas. Urban Ecosyst. 1:185-199. doi:10.1023/A:1018531712889
170. Pickett, S.T.A., M.L. Cadenasso, J. M. Grove, P.M. Groffman, L.E. Band, C.G. Boone, W.R. Burch, Jr., S.B. Grimmond, J. Hom, J.C. Jenkins, N.L. Law, C.H. Nilon, R.V. Pouyat, K. Szlavecz, P.S. Warren, and M.A. Wilson. 2008. Beyond urban legends: An emerging framework of urban ecology, as illustrated by the Baltimore ecosystem study. BioSci. 58(2):139-150. doi:10.1641/B580208
171. Pickett, S.T.A., M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, C.H. Nilon, R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, and R. Costanza. 2001. Urban ecological systems: Linking terrestrial ecological, physical, and socioeconomic components of metropolitan areas. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 32:127-157. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114012
172. Pilgrim, E.S., M.J. Crawley, and K. Dolphin. 2004. Patterns of rarity in the native British flora. Biol. Conserv. 120:161-170. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.02.008
173. Pokorny, M.L., R.L. Shelley, C.A. Zabinski, R.E. Engel, T.J. Svejcar, and J.J. Borkowski. 2005. Plant functional group diversity as a mechanism for invasion resistance. Restor. Ecol. 13(3):448-459. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100X.2005.00056.x
174. Poland, T.M, and D.G. McCullough. 2006. Emerald ash borer: Invasion of the urban forest and the threat to North America’s ash resource. J. For. 104(3):118-124.
175. Polasky, S., E. Nelson, D. Pennington, and K.A. Johnson. 2011. The impact of land-use change on ecosystem services, biodiversity, and returns to landowners: A case study in the state of Minnesota. Environ. Res. Econ. 48:219-242. doi:10.1007/s10640-010-9407-0
176. Pouyat, R.V., and M.J. McDonnell. 1991. Heavy metal accumulations in forest soils along an urban-rural gradient in southeastern New York, USA. Water Air Soil Pollut. 57-58:797-807. doi:10.1007/BF00282943
177. Pouyat, R.V., M.J. McDonnell, and S.T.A. Pickett. 1997. Litter decomposition and nitrogen mineralization in oak stands along an urban-rural land use gradient. Urban Ecosyst. 1:117-131. doi:10.1023/A:1018567326093
178. Pretto, F., L. Celesti-Grapow, E. Carli, and C. Blasi. 2010. Influence of past land use and current human disturbance on non-native plant species on small Italian islands. Plant Ecol. 210:225-239. doi:10.1007/s11258-010-9751-8
179. Radeloff, V.C., R.B. Hammer, S.I. Stewart, J.S. Fried, S.S. Holcomb, and J.F. McKeefry. 2005. The wildland-urban interface in the United States. Ecol. Appl. 15(3):799-805. doi:10.1890/04-1413
180. Ravallion, M., S. Chen, and P. Sangraula. 2007. New evidence on the urbanization of global poverty. Popul. Dev. Rev. 33(4):667-701. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2007.00193.x
181. Rebele, F. 1994. Urban ecology and special features of urban ecosystems. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. Lett. 4:173-187. doi:10.2307/2997649
182. Reichard, S.H., and C.W. Hamilton. 1997. Predicting invasions of woody plants introduced into North America. Conserv. Biol. 11(1):193-203. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.95473.x
183. Ricotta, D., M. DiNepi, D. Guglietta, and L. Celesti-Grapow. 2008. Exploring taxonomic filtering in urban environments. J. Veg. Sci. 19:229-238. doi:10.3170/2008-8-18363
184. Robinson, G.R., and S.N. Handel. 1993. Forest restoration on a closed landfill: Rapid addition of new species by bird dispersal. Conserv. Biol. 7(2):271-278. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.07020271.x
185. Rosenzweig, M.L. 2001. The four questions: What does the introduction of exotic species do to diversity? Evol. Ecol. Res. 3: 361-367.
186. Saunders, D.A., R.J. Hobbs, and C.R. Margules. 1991. Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: A review. Conserv. Biol. 5(1):18-32. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1991.tb00384.x
187. Schall, M.J., and D.D. Davis. 2009. Ailanthus altissima wilt and mortality: Etiology. Plant Disease 93:747-751. doi:10.1094/PDIS-93-7-0747
188. Schmidt, K.A., and C.J. Whelan. 1999. Effects of exotic Lonicera and Rhamnus on songbird nest predation. Conserv. Biol. 13(6):1502-1506. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.99050.x
189. Schwartz, M.W., and D. Simberloff. 2001. Taxon size predicts rates of rarity in vascular plants. Ecol. Lett. 4: 464-469. doi:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00241.x
190. Schwartz, M.W., J.H. Thorne, and J.H. Viers. 2006. Biotic homogenization of the California flora in urban and urbanizing regions. Biol. Conserv. 127:282-291. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.05.017
191. Shapiro, A.M. 2002. The California urban butterfly fauna is dependent on alien plants. Divers. Distrib. 8:31-40. doi:10.1046/j.1366-9516.2001.00120.x
192. Sher, A.A., D.I. Marshall, and S.A. Gilbert. 2000. Competition between native Populus deltoids and invasive Tamarix ramosissima and the implications for re-establishing flooding disturbance. Conserv. Biol. 14(6):1744-1754. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99306.x
193. Sieving, K.E., M.F. Wilson, and T. L. De Santo. 1996. Habitat barriers to movement of understory birds in fragmented south-temperate rain-forest. The Auk 113(4):944-949.
194. Simberloff, D. 2009. The role of propagule pressure in biological invasions. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 40:81-102. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120304
195. Smith, R.M., K. Thompson, J.G. Hodgson, P.H. Warren, and K.J. Gaston. 2006. Urban domestic gardens (IX): Composition and richness of the vascular flora, and implications for native biodiversity. Biol. Conserv. 129:312-322. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.10.045
196. Stehlik, I., J.P. Caspersen, L. Wirth, and R. Holderegger. 2007. Floral free fall in the Swiss lowlands: Environmental determinants of local plant extinction in a peri-urban landscape. J. Ecol. 95:734-744. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01246.x
197. Steinberg, D.A., R.V. Pouyat, R.W. Parmelee, and P.M. Groffman. 1997. Earthworm abundance and nitrogen mineralization rates along an urban-rural land use gradient. Soil Biol. Biochem. 29(3-4):427-430. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00043-0
198. Stewart, S.I., V.C. Radeloff, and R.B. Hammer. 2007. Defining the wildland urban interface. J. For. 105(4):201-207.
199. Stinson, K.A., S.A. Campbell, J.R. Powell, B.E. Wolfe, R.M. Callaway, G.C. Thelen, S.G. Hallett, D. Prati, and J.N. Klironomos. 2006. Invasive plant suppresses the growth of native tree seedlings by disrupting belowground mutualisms. PLoS Biol. 4(5):e140. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040140
200. Stohlgren, T.J., D. Binkley, G.W. Chong, M.A. Kalkhan, L.D. Schell, K.A. Bull, Y. Otsuki, G. Newman, M. Bashkia, and Y. Son. 1999. Exotic plant species invade hot spots of native plant diversity. Ecol. Monogr. 69:25-46. doi:10.1890/0012-9615(1999)069[0025:EPSIHS]2.0.CO;2
201. Strauss, S.Y., C.O. Webb, and N. Salamin. 2006. Exotic taxa less related to native species are more invasive. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 103(15):5841-5845. doi:10.1073/pnas.0508073103
202. Sturtevant, B.R., B.R. Miranda, J. Yang, H.S. He, E.J. Gustafson, and R.M. Scheller. 2009. Studying fire mitigation strategies in multi-ownership landscapes: Balancing the management of fire-dependent ecosystems and fire risk. Ecosystems 12:445-461. doi:10.1007/s10021-009-9234-8
203. Sullivan, J.J., S.M. Timmins, and P.A. Williams. 2005. Movement of exotic plants into coastal native forests from gardens in northern New Zealand. N.Z. J. Ecol. 29(1):1-10.
204. Swanson, M.E., J. F. Franklin, R. L. Beschta, C.M. Crisafulli, D.A. DellaSala, R.L. Hutto, D.B. Lindenmayer, and F.J. Swanson. 2011. The forgotten stage of forest succession: Early-successional ecosystems on forest sites. Front. Ecol. Environ. 9(2):117-125. doi:10.1890/090157
205. Syphard, A.D., K.C. Clarke, and J. Franklin. 2007. Simulating fire frequency and urban growth in southern California coastal shrublands, USA. Landscape Ecol. 22:431-445. doi:10.1007/s10980-006-9025-y
206. Theobald, D.M. 2004. Placing exurban land-use change in a human modification framework. Frontiers Ecol. Environ. 2(3):139-144. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0139:PELCIA]2.0.CO;2
207. Theobald, D.M., and W.H. Romme. 2007. Expansion of the U.S. wildland-urban interface. Landscape Urban Plan. 83:340-354. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.06.002
208. Theoharides, K.A., and J.S. Dukes. 2007. Plant invasion across space and time: Factors affecting nonindigenous species success during four stages of invasion. New Phytol. 176:256-273. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02207.x
209. Thiele, J., J. Kollmann, and U.R. Anderson. 2009. Ecological and socioeconomic correlates of plant invasions in Denmark: The utility of environmental assessment data. Ambio 38(2):89-94. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-38.2.89
210. Tilman, D. 1994. Competition and biodiversity in spatially structured habitats. Ecol. 75(1):2-16. doi:10.2307/1939377
211. Tipping, P.W. 2000. Natural and augmented spread of rose rosette disease of multiflora rose in Maryland. Plant Disease 84(12):1344. doi:10.1094/PDIS.2000.84.12.1344C
212. Torchin, M.E., and C.E. Mitchell. 2004. Parasites, pathogens, and invasions by plants and animals. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2(4):183-190. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0183:PPAIBP]2.0.CO;2
213. Tracey, D. 2011. Urban agriculture. New Society Publ., Gabriola Island, BC, Canada. p. 1-256.
214. Traveset, A., and D.M. Richardson. 2006. Biological invasions as disruptors of plant reproductive mutualisms. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21(4):208-216. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.01.006
215. Tucker, K.C., and D.M. Richardson. 1995. An expert system for screening potentially invasive alien plants in South African fynbos. J. Environ. Manage. 44:309-338. doi:10.1016/S0301-4797(95)90347-X
216. Turner, I.M., and R.T. Corlett. 1996. The conservation value of small, isolated fragments of lowland tropical rain forest. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11(8):330-333. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(96)10046-X
217. United Nations Population Division. 2006. World urbanization prospects: The 2005 revision. United Nations, New York.
218. University of Georgia, Georgia Exotic Pest Plant Council. 2006. List of Non-native Invasive Plants in Georgia. http://www.gaeppc.org/list.cfm (accessed June 2011).
219. University of Georgia, Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Illionois Invasive plant List 2011. http://www.invasive.org/species/list.cfm?id=152 (accessed June 2011).
220. University of Georgia, Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. 2010. Plant Species Reported to be Invasive in Natural Areas. Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States. http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/index.html (accessed June 2011).
221. U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2011a. Population distribution and change: 2000 to 2010. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-01.pdf (accessed Aug. 2011).
222. U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2011b. Urban area criteria for the 2010 census. Federal Register 76(164):53030-53043.
223. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 2008. BLM National List of Invasive Weed Species of Concern. http://www.blm.gov/co/st/en/BLM_Programs/botany/invasiweed.html (accessed June 2011).
224. USDA Forest Service, Fire Effects Information System. 2011. FEIS Invasive Plants List. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/weed/index.html (accessed June 2011).
225. Vermeij, G.J. 2005. Invasion as expectation: A historical fact of life. In: D.F. Sax, J.J. Stachowicz, and S.D. Gaines editors, Species invasions: Insights into ecology, evolution, and biogeography. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA. p. 315-339.
226. Vilà, M., J. Pino, and X. Font. 2007. Regional assessment of plant invasions across different habitat types. J. Veg. Sci. 18:35-42. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2007.tb02513.x
227. Vilà, M., and J. Weiner. 2004. Are invasive plant species better competitors than native plant species?-evidence from pair-wise experiments. Oikos 105:229-238. doi:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2004.12682.x
228. von der Lippe, M., and I. Kowarik. 2008. Do cities export diversity? Traffic as dispersal vector across urban-rural gradients. Divers. Distrib. 14:18-25. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00401.x
229. Von Holle, B., and D. Simberloff. 2005. Ecological resistance to biological invasion overwhelmed by propagule pressure. Ecology 86(12):3212-3218. doi:10.1890/05-0427
230. Walker, J.S., N.B. Grimm, J.M. Briggs, C. Gries, and L. Dugan. 2009. Effects of urbanization on plant species diversity in central Arizona. Front. Ecol. Environ. 7(9):465-470. doi:10.1890/080084
231. Wania, A., I. Kühn, and S. Klotz. 2006. Plant richness patterns in agricultural and urban landscapes in Central Germany-spatial gradients of species richness. Landscape Urban Plan. 75:97-110. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.12.006
232. Weng, Y-C. 2007. Spatiotemporal changes of landscape pattern in response to urbanization. Landscape Urban Plan. 81:341-353. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.01.009
233. Westphal, J.M. 2001. Managing agricultural resources at the urban-rural interface: A case study of the Old Mission Peninsula. Landscape Urban Plan. 57:13-24. doi:10.1016/S0169-2046(01)00185-2
234. Wilcove, D.S., D. Rothstein, J. Dubow, A. Phillips, and E. Losos. 1998. Quantifying threats to imperiled species in the United States. Bioscience 48(8):607-615. doi:10.2307/1313420
235. Williams, N.S.G., J.W. Morgan, M.J. McDonnell, and M.A. McCarthy. 2005. Plant traits and local extinctions in natural grasslands along an urban-rural gradient. J. Ecol. 93:1203-1213. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.01039.x
236. Williams, N.S.G., M.W. Schwartz, P.A. Vesk, M.A. McCarthy, A.K. Hahs, S.E. Clements, R.T. Corlett, R.P. Duncan, B.A. Norton, K. Thompson, and M.J. McDonnell. 2009. A conceptual framework for predicting the effects of urban environments on floras. J. Ecol. 97:4-9. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2008.01460.x
237. Williamson, M., and A. Fitter. 1996. The varying success of invaders. Ecology 77:1661-1666. doi:10.2307/2265769
238. Willis, C.G., B.R. Ruhfel, R.B. Primack, A.J. Miller-Rushing, J.B. Losos, and C.C. Davis. 2010. Favorable climate change response explains non-native species’ success in Thoreau’s Woods. PLoS One 5(1):E8878. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008878
239. Wilson, J.R.U., E. E. Dormontt, P.J. Prentis, A.J. Lowe, and D.M. Richardson. 2009. Something in the way you move: Dispersal pathways affect invasion success. Trends Ecol Evol. 24(3):136-44.
240. Wirth, F.F., K.J. Davis, and S.B. Wilson. 2004. Florida nursery sales and economic impacts of 14 potentially invasive landscape plant species. J. Environ. Hort. 22(1):12-16.
241. With, K.A. 2002. The landscape ecology of invasive spread. Conserv. Biol. 16:1192-1203. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.01064.x
242. Wittig, R. 2004. The origin and development of the urban flora of Central Europe. Urban Ecosyst. 7:323-339. doi:10.1007/s11252-005-6833-9
243. Wu, J. 2008. Making a case for landscape ecology: An effective approach to urban sustainability. Landscape J. 27:41-50. doi:10.3368/lj.27.1.41
244. Zavaleta, E.S., R.J. Hobbs, and H.A. Mooney. 2001. Viewing invasive species removal in a whole-ecosystem context. Trends Ecol. Evol. 16(8):454-459. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02194-2
245. Zipperer, W.C. 2002. Species composition and structure of regenerated and remnant forest patches within an urban landscape. Urban Ecosyst. 6:271-290. doi:10.1023/B:UECO.0000004827.12561.d4
246. Zipperer, W.C. 2010. Factors influencing non-native tree species distribution in urban landscapes. In: N. Muller, P. Werner, and J.G. Kelcey editors, Urban biodiversity and design. Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ. p. 243-251.
247. Zipperer, W.C., J. Wu, R.V. Pouyat, and S.T.A. Pickett. 2000. The application of ecological principles to urban and urbanizing landscapes. Ecol. Appl. 10(3):685-688. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0685:TAOEPT]2.0.CO;2
248. Ziska, L.H., J.A. Bunce, and E.W. Goins. 2004. Characterization of an urban-rural CO2/temperature gradient and associated changes in initial plant productivity during secondary succession. Oecologia 139:454-458. doi:10.1007/s00442-004-1526-2