The dark personality and psychopathology: Toward a brighter future

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

Volumn 126, Issue 7, 2017, Pages 835-842

  Thomaes, Sander ^a   Brummelman, Eddie ^b,e   Miller, Joshua D ^c   Lilienfeld, Scott O ^d,f  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

^d EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^f UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

Dark triad; Developmental psychopathology; Narcissism; Psychopathology; Psychopathy

Indexed keywords

ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR; AGGRESSION; AUTHORITY; AVERSIVE BEHAVIOR; DOMINANCE BEHAVIOR; EDITORIAL; HUMAN; IMPULSIVENESS; INTERMITTENT EXPLOSIVE DISORDER; MACHIAVELLIANISM; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL PATIENT; NARCISSISM; OFFENDER; PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDER; PASSIVE AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY DISORDER; PERSONALITY; PSYCHOPATHY; TYPE A BEHAVIOR; ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER;

ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER; HUMANS; MACHIAVELLIANISM; NARCISSISM; PERSONALITY; PSYCHOPATHOLOGY;

EID: 85032934915     PISSN: 0021843X     EISSN: 19391846     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/abn0000305     Document Type: Editorial

References (91)

1. Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54, 317-326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.5 .317
2. Babiak, P., Neumann, C. S., & Hare, R. D. (2010). Corporate psychopathy: Talking the walk. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 28, 174-193.
3. Baughman, H. M., Dearing, S., Giammarco, E., & Vernon, P. A. (2012). Relationships between bullying behaviours and the Dark Triad: A study with adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 571-575. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.020
4. Blair, R. J. R., Peschardt, K. S., Budhani, S., Mitchell, D. G. V., & Pine, D. S. (2006). The development of psychopathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 47, 262-276. http://dx .doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01596.x
5. Blonigen, D. M., Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Psychopathic personality traits: Heritability and genetic overlap with internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Psychological Medicine, 35, 637-648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S003329170 4004180
6. Brummelman, E., Nelemans, S. A., Thomaes, S., & Orobio de Castro, B. (in press). When parents' praise inflates, children's self-esteem deflates. Child Development.
7. Brummelman, E., Thomaes, S., Nelemans, S. A., Orobio de Castro, B., Overbeek, G., & Bushman, B. J. (2015). Origins of narcissism in children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 3659-3662.
8. Buckels, E. E., Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2013). Behavioral confirmation of everyday sadism. Psychological Science, 24, 2201-2209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797613490749
9. Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219-229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.219
10. Chabrol, H., Van Leeuwen, N., Rodgers, R., & Séjourné, N. (2009). Contributions of psychopathic, narcissistic, Machiavellian, and sadistic personality traits to juvenile delinquency. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 734-739. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.06.020
11. Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597-600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400007318
12. Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: The coming of age of a discipline. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 50, 16-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008 .01979.x
13. Crone, E. A., & Dahl, R. E. (2012). Understanding adolescence as a period of social-affective engagement and goal flexibility. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13, 636-650. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn3313
14. De Clercq, B., Hofmans, J., Vergauwe, J., De Fruyt, F., & Sharp, C. (2017). Developmental Pathways of Childhood Dark Traits. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 843-858.
15. Dotterer, H. L., Waller, R., Cope, L. M., Hicks, B. M., Nigg, J. T., Zucker, R. A., & Hyde, L. W. (2017). Concurrent and Developmental Correlates of Psychopathic Traits Using a Triarchic Psychopathy Model Approach. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 859-876.
16. Dubas, J. S., Baams, L., Doornwaard, S. M., & Van Aken, M. A. G. (2017). Dark Personality Traits and Impulsivity Among Adolescents: Differential Links to Problem Behaviors and Family Relations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 877-889.
17. Edwards, B. G., Albertson, E., & Verona, E. (2017). Dark and Vulnerable Personality Trait Correlates of Dimensions of Criminal Behavior Among Adult Offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 921-927.
18. Ferguson, E., & Lievens, F. (2017). Future directions in personality, occupational and medical selection: Myths, misunderstandings, measurement and suggestions. Advances in Health Sciences Education: Theory and Practice, 22, 387-399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10459-016-9751-0
19. Fontaine, N. M., Rijsdijk, F. V., McCrory, E. J., & Viding, E. (2010). Etiology of different developmental trajectories of callous-unemotional traits. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 656-664.
20. Foster, J. D., Campbell, W. K., & Twenge, J. M. (2003). Individual differences in narcissism: Inflated self-views across the lifespan and around the world. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 469-486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(03)00026-6
21. Frances, A. (2016, September 6). Trump is breaking bad, not clinically mad. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost .com/allen-frances/trump-is-breaking-bad-not-clinically-mad_b_10362128 .html
22. Frances, A. (2017, January 31). Trump isn't crazy. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/saving-normal/ 201701/trump-isnt-crazy
23. Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., & Kahn, R. E. (2014). Annual research review: A developmental psychopathology approach to understanding callous-unemotional traits in children and adolescents with serious conduct problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 55, 532-548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp .12152
24. Furnham, A., Richards, S. C., & Paulhus, D. L. (2013). The Dark Triad of personality: A 10 year review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 199-216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12018
25. Gretton, H. M., Hare, R. D., & Catchpole, R. E. (2004). Psychopathy and offending from adolescence to adulthood: A 10-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 636-645. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0022-006X.72.4.636
26. Harrop, T., Preston, O. C., Khazem, L. R., Anestis, M. D., Junearick, R., Green, B. A., & Anestis, J. C. (2017). Dark Traits and Suicide: Associations Between Psychopathy, Narcissism, and Components of the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 928-938.
27. Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). Most people are not WEIRD. Nature, 466, 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/466029a
28. Hinshaw, S. P. (2015). Developmental psychopathology, ontogenic process models, gene-environment interplay, and brain development: An emerging synthesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 771-775. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/abn0000110
29. Ho, A. K., Sidanius, J., Pratto, F., Levin, S., Thomsen, L., Kteily, N., & Sheehy-Skeffington, J. (2012). Social dominance orientation: Revisiting the structure and function of a variable predicting social and political attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 583-606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167211432765
30. Hodson, G., Hogg, S. M., & MacInnis, C. C. (2009). The role of "dark personalities" (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy), big five personality factors, and ideology in explaining prejudice. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 686-690. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp .2009.02.005
31. Jakobwitz, S., & Egan, V. (2006). The dark triad and normal personality traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 331-339. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.07.006
32. Jonason, P. K., Baughman, H. M., Carter, G. L., & Parker, P. (2015). Dorian Gray without his portrait: Psychological, social, and physical health costs associated with the Dark Triad. Personality and Individual Differences, 78, 5-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.01.008
33. Jonason, P. K., Li, N. P., & Czarna, A. Z. (2013). Quick and dirty: Some psychosocial costs associated with the dark triad in three countries. Evolutionary Psychology, 11, 172-185.
34. Jonason, P. K., Li, N. P., Webster, G. D., & Schmitt, D. P. (2009). The dark triad: Facilitating a short-term mating strategy in men. European Journal of Personality, 23, 5-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.698
35. Jonason, P. K., Lyons, M., & Bethell, E. (2014). The making of Darth Vader: Parent-child care and the Dark Triad. Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 30-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.10.006
36. Jones, D. N., & Figueredo, A. J. (2013). The core of darkness: Uncovering the heart of the Dark Triad. European Journal of Personality, 27, 521-531. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.1893
37. Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2010). Different provocations trigger aggression in narcissists and psychopaths. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 1, 12-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550609347591
38. Krizan, Z., & Herlache, A. D. (in press). The narcissism spectrum model: A synthetic view of narcissistic personality. Personality and Social Psychology Review.
39. Leckelt, M., Küfner, A. C., Nestler, S., & Back, M. D. (2015). Behavioral processes underlying the decline of narcissists' popularity over time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 856-871. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000057
40. Lilienfeld, S. O., & Waldman, I. D. (2017). Psychological science under scrutiny: Recent challenges and proposed solutions. Chichester, UK: Wiley. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119095910
41. Lilienfeld, S. O., Watts, A. L., & Francis Smith, S. (2015). Successful psychopathy: A scientific status report. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24, 298-303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/096372141 5580297
42. Lilienfeld, S. O., Watts, A. L., Francis Smith, S., Berg, J. M., & Latzman, R. D. (2015). Psychopathy deconstructed and reconstructed: Identifying and assembling the personality building blocks of Cleckley's chimera. Journal of Personality, 83, 593-610. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jopy .12118
43. Lynam, D. R., Hoyle, R. H., & Newman, J. P. (2006). The perils of partialling: Cautionary tales from aggression and psychopathy. Assessment, 13, 328-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073191106290562
44. Marcus, D. K., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). A big tent of dark personality traits. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9, 434-446. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12185
45. Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic. Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227-238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0003-066X.56.3.227
46. Meehl, P. E. (1971). High school yearbooks: A reply to Schwarz. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 77, 143-148. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ h0030750
47. Miller, J. D., & Campbell, W. K. (2008). Comparing clinical and socialpersonality conceptualizations of narcissism. Journal of Personality, 76, 449-476. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00492.x
48. Miller, J. D., Campbell, W. K., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2007). Narcissistic personality disorder: Relations with distress and functional impairment. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 48, 170-177. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j .comppsych.2006.10.003
49. Miller, J. D., Dir, A., Gentile, B., Wilson, L., Pryor, L. R., & Campbell, W. K. (2010). Searching for a vulnerable dark triad: Comparing factor 2 psychopathy, vulnerable narcissism, and borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality, 78, 1529-1564. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j .1467-6494.2010.00660.x
50. Miller, J. D., Jones, S. E., & Lynam, D. R. (2011). Psychopathic traits from the perspective of self and informant reports: Is there evidence for a lack of insight? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 758-764. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/a0022477
51. Miller, J. D., Lynam, D. R., Hyatt, C. S., & Campbell, W. K. (2017). Controversies in narcissism. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, 291-315. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045244
52. Miller, J. D., Lynam, D. R., Widiger, T. A., & Leukefeld, C. (2001). Personality disorders as extreme variants of common personality dimensions Can the five-factor model adequately represent psychopathy? Journal of Personality, 69, 253-276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00144
53. Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model. Psychological Inquiry, 12, 177-196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1204_1
54. Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Otgaar, H., & Meijer, E. (2017). The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the Dark Triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, 183-204. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/1745691616666070
55. O'Boyle, E. H., Forsyth, D. R., Banks, G. C., & McDaniel, M. A. (2012). A meta-analysis of the Dark Triad and work behavior: A social exchange perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 557-579. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/a0025679
56. Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Psychology: Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349, aac4716. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1126/science.aac4716
57. Pashler, H., & Wagenmakers, E. J. (2012). Editors' introduction to the special section on replicability in psychological science: A crisis of confidence? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 528-530. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691612465253
58. Patrick, C. J., Fowles, D. C., & Krueger, R. F. (2009). Triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy: Developmental origins of disinhibition, boldness, and meanness. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 913-938. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000492
59. Paulhus, D. L. (1998). Interpersonal and intrapsychic adaptiveness of trait self-enhancement: A mixed blessing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1197-1208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5 .1197
60. Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Toward a taxonomy of dark personalities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 421-426. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1177/0963721414547737
61. Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M. (2002). The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 556-563. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566 (02)00505-6
62. Pincus, A. L., & Lukowitsky, M. R. (2010). Pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 421-446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131215
63. Reijntjes, A., Vermande, M., Thomaes, S., Goossens, F., Olthof, T., Aleva, L., & Van der Meulen, M. (2016). Narcissism, bullying, and social dominance in youth: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44, 63-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-9974-1
64. Ro, E., Nuzum, H., & Clark, L. A. (2017). Antagonism Trait Facets and Comprehensive Psychosocial Disability: Comparing Information Across Self, Informant, and Interviewer Reports. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 890-897.
65. Rutter, M. (2012). Resilience as a dynamic concept. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 335-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S09545794 12000028
66. Sedikides, C., & Campbell, W. K. (2017). Narcissistic force meets systemic resistance: The energy clash model. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, 400-421. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691617692105
67. Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., & Toguchi, Y. (2003). Pancultural selfenhancement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 60-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.60
68. Sedikides, C., Rudich, E. A., Gregg, A. P., Kumashiro, M., & Rusbult, C. (2004). Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy? Self-esteem matters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 400-416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.400
69. Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis al-lows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22, 1359-1366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632
70. Skeem, J. L., & Cooke, D. J. (2010). Is criminal behavior a central component of psychopathy? Conceptual directions for resolving the debate. Psychological Assessment, 22, 433-445. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/a0008512
71. Sleep, C. E., Lynam, D. R., Hyatt, C. S., & Miller, J. D. (2017). Perils of Partialing Redux: The Case of the Dark Triad. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 939-950.
72. Smith, G. T., McCarthy, D. M., & Zapolski, T. C. (2009). On the value of homogeneous constructs for construct validation, theory testing, and the description of psychopathology. Psychological Assessment, 21, 272-284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0016699
73. Smith, S. F., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2013). Psychopathy in the workplace: The knowns and unknowns. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 204-218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.11.007
74. Steinberg, L. (2014). Age of opportunity: Lessons from the new science of adolescence. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
75. Sullivan, E. A., & Kosson, D. S. (2006). Ethnic and cultural variations in psychopathy. In C. J. Patrick (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 437-458). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
76. Thomaes, S., & Brummelman, E. (2016). Narcissism. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 3, pp. 679-725). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
77. Thomaes, S., Brummelman, E., Reijntjes, A., & Bushman, B. J. (2013). When Narcissus was a boy: Origins, nature, and consequences of childhood narcissism. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 22-26. http://dx .doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12009
78. Thomaes, S., Brummelman, E., & Sedikides, C. (in press). Narcissism: A social-developmental perspective. In V. Zeigler-Hill & T. Shackelford (Eds.), The sage handbook of personality and individual differences. London, UK: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119125556 .devpsy316
79. Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., Orobio de Castro, B., Cohen, G. L., & Denissen, J. J. (2009). Reducing narcissistic aggression by buttressing self-esteem: An experimental field study. Psychological Science, 20, 1536-1542. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02478.x
80. Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., Stegge, H., & Olthof, T. (2008). Trumping shame by blasts of noise: Narcissism, self-esteem, shame, and aggression in young adolescents. Child Development, 79, 1792-1801. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01226.x
81. Tokarev, A., Phillips, A. R., Hughes, D. J., & Irwing, P. (2017). Leader Dark Traits, Workplace Bullying, and Employee Depression: Exploring Mediation and the Role of the Dark Core. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 911-920.
82. Tuvblad, C., Wang, P., Bezdjian, S., Raine, A., & Baker, L. A. (2016). Psychopathic personality development from ages 9 to 18: Genes and environment. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 27-44. http://dx .doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000267
83. Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2003). "Isn't it fun to get the respect that we're going to deserve?" Narcissism, social rejection, and aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 261-272. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167202239051
84. Vize, C. E., Lynam, D. R., Collison, K. L., & Miller, J. D. (2016). Differences among dark triad components: A meta-analytic investigation. Personality Disorders. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/per0000222
85. Vonk, J., Zeigler-Hill, V., Ewing, D., Mercer, S., & Noser, A. E. (2015). Mindreading in the dark: Dark personality features and theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 50-54. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.paid.2015.07.025
86. Wai, M., & Tiliopoulos, N. (2012). The affective and cognitive empathic nature of the dark triad of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 794-799. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.008
87. Watts, A. L., Waldman, I., Francis Smith, S., Poore, H., & Lilienfeld, S. (2017). The Nature and Correlates of the Dark Triad: The Answers Depend on the Questions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 951-968.
88. Watts, A. L., Lilienfeld, S. O., Smith, S. F., Miller, J. D., Campbell, W. K., Waldman, I. D., Faschingbauer, T. J. (2013). The double-edged sword of grandiose narcissism: Implications for successful and unsuccessful leadership among U.S. Presidents. Psychological Science, 24, 2379-2389. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797613491970
89. Widiger, T. A. (2006). Psychopathy and DSM-IV psychopathology. In C. J. Patrick (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 156-171). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
90. Wright, J. P., Morgan, M. A., Almeida, P. R., Almosaed, N. F., Moghrabi, S. S., & Bashatah, F. S. (2017). Malevolent forces: Self-control, the Dark Triad, and crime. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 15, 191-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1541204016667995
91. Wright, A. G. C., Stepp, S. D., Scott, L. N., Hallquist, M. N., Beeney, J. E., Lazarus, S. A., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2017). The Effect of Pathological Narcissism on Interpersonal and Affective Processes in Social Interactions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 898-910.