White male power and privilege: The relationship between white supremacy and social class

Journal of Counseling Psychology

Volumn 64, Issue 4, 2017, Pages 349-358

  Liu, William Ming ^a  

^a Division of Cardiac Anesthesia   (United States)

Author keywords

Affluent; Privilege; Social class; Wealthy; White supremacy; Working class

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIOR; CHRISTIANITY; COUNSELING; FEMALE; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; IDENTITY; IDEOLOGY; LAW ENFORCEMENT; MALE; MASCULINITY; ORGANIZATION; PSYCHOLOGIST; SOCIAL CLASS;

EID: 85021653439     PISSN: 00220167     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/cou0000227     Document Type: Article

References (68)

1. Aalbers, M. B. (2013). How do mortgage lenders influence neighbourhood dynamics? Redlining and predatory lending. In M. v. Ham, D. Manley, N. Bailey, L. Simpson, & D. Maclennan (Eds.), Understanding neighborhood dynamics: New insights for neighbourhood effects research (pp. 63-85). New York, NY: Springer.
2. Bell, D. (1992). Faces at the bottom of the well: The permanence of racism. New York, NY: Basic Books.
3. Bell, D., & Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma. (1980). Brown v. Board of Education and the interest-convergence dilemma. Harvard Law Review, 93, 518-533. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/ 1340546.
4. Black, E. (2003). War against the weak: Eugenics and America's campaign to create a master race. New York, NY: Four Walls Eight Windows.
5. Brayboy, B. M. J. (2005). Toward a tribal critical race theory in education. The Urban Review, 37, 425-446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11256-005- 0018.y.
6. Brody, G. H., Yu, T., Miller, G. E., & Chen, E. (2016). Resilience in adolescence, health, and psychosocial outcomes. Pediatrics, 138, e20161042. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1042.
7. Carey, R. M., & Markus, H. R. (2016). Understanding consumer psychology in working-class contexts. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 26, 568-582. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2016.08.004.
8. Caruso, E. M., Vohs, K. D., Baxter, B., & Waytz, A. (2013). Mere exposure to money increases endorsement of free-market systems and social inequality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 301-306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0029288.
9. Cozzarelli, C., Wilkinson, A. V., & Tagler, M. J. (2001). Attitudes toward the poor and attributions for poverty. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 207-227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00209.
10. Cuddy, A. J. C., Wolf, E. B., Glick, P., Crotty, S., Chong, J., & Norton, M. I. (2015). Men as cultural ideals: Cultural values moderate gender stereotype content. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 622-635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000027.
11. Devos, T., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). American = White? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 447-466. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0022-3514.88.3.447.
12. DiAngelo, R. (2011). White fragility. International Journal of Critical Pedagogy, 3, 54-70.
13. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 62-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82 .1.62.
14. Eriksson, K., & Simpson, B. (2014). Poverty prefers company. Social Psychology and Personality Science, 5, 319-325. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1177/1948550613497985.
15. Fiske, S. T. (1993). Controlling other people. The impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist, 48, 621-628. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0003-066X.48.6.621.
16. Haines, E. L., & Jost, J. T. (2000). Placating the powerless: Effects of legitimate and illegitimate explanation on affect, memory, and sterotyp-ing. Social Justice Research, 13, 219-236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A: 1026481205719.
17. Harris, C. I. (1995). Whiteness as property. In K. Crenshaw, N. Gotanda, G. Pella, & K. Thomas (Eds.), Critical race theory: The key writings that formed the movement (pp. 276-291). New York, NY: The New Press.
18. Herring, C., & Henderson, L. (2016). Wealth inequality in Black and White: Cultural and structural sources of the racial wealth gap. Race and Social Problems, 8, 4-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12552-016-9159-8.
19. Hochschild, J. L., & Powell, B. M. (2008). Racial reorganization and the United States Census 1850-1930: Mulattoes, half-breeds, mixed parentage, hindoos, and the Mexican race. Studies in American Political Development, 22, 59 -96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0898588X080 00047.
20. hooks, b. (2004). We real cool: Black men and masculinity. New York, NY: Routledge.
21. Hussak, L. J., & Cimpian, A. (2015). An early-emerging explanatory heuristic promotes support for the status quo. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 739 -752. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ pspa0000033.
22. Isenberg, N. (2016). White trash: The 400-year untold history of class in America. New York, NY: Viking.
23. Israel, T. (2011). Exploring privilege in counseling psychology: Shifting the lens. The Counseling Psychologist, 40, 158-180. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/0011000011426297.
24. Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R., & Nosek, B. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25, 881-919. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00402.x.
25. Jost, J. T., & van der Toorn, J. (2012). System justification theory. In P. S. M. van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 313-343). London, UK: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n42.
26. Kahn, K. B., & McMahon, J. M. (2015). Shooting deaths of unarmed racial minorities: Understanding the role of racial stereotypes in decisions to shoot. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 1, 310-320. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/tps0000047.
27. Kay, A. C., Whitson, J., Gaucher, D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2009). Compensatory control: In the mind, in our institutions, in heavens. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 264-268. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01649.x.
28. Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Anderson, C. (2003). Power, approach, and inhibition. Psychological Review, 110, 265-284. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.265.
29. Kluegel, J. R., & Smith, E. R. (1986). Beliefs about inequality: American's views of what is and what out to be. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine.
30. Kraus, M. W., & Tan, J. J. X. (2015). American overestimate social class mobility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 58, 101-111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.01.005.
31. Kuziemko, I., Buell, R. W., Reich, T., & Norton, M. I. (2011). Last place aversion: Evidence and redistributive implications (No. 217234). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w17234.
32. Lapour, A. S., & Heppner, M. J. (2009). Social class privilege and adolescent women's perceived career options. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 477-494. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0017268.
33. Liu, W. M. (2002). The social class-related experiences of men: Integrating theory and practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33, 355-360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.33.4.355.
34. Liu, W. M. (2005). The study of men and masculinity as an important multicultural competency consideration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 685-697. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20103.
35. Liu, W. M. (2011). Social class and classism in the helping professions: Research, theory, and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
36. Liu, W. M., & Ali, S. R. (2005). Addressing social class and classism in vocational theory and practice: Extending the emancipatory communitarian approach. The Counseling Psychologist, 33, 189-196. http://dx .doi.org/10.1177/0011000004272269.
37. Liu, W. M., Hernandez, J., Mahmood, A., & Stinson, R. (2006). The link between poverty, classism, and racism in mental health. In D. W. Sue & M. G. Constantine (Eds.), Racism as a barrier to cultural competence in mental health and educational settings (pp. 65-86). New York, NY: Wiley.
38. Liu, W. M., Pickett, T., Jr., & Ivey, A. E. (2007). White middle-class privilege: Social class bias and implications for training and practice. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 35, 194-206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2007.tb00060.x.
39. Magee, J. C., Galinsky, A. D., & Gruenfeld, D. H. (2007). Power, propensity to negotiate, and moving first in competitive interactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 200-212. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1177/0146167206294413.
40. Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J. (2013). Poverty impedes cognitive function. Science, 341, 976-980. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/ science.1238041.
41. McConnell, E. A., & Todd, N. R. (2015). Differences in White privilege attitudes and religious beliefs across racial affect types. The Counseling Psychologist, 43, 1135-1161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00110000 15610436.
42. McGoldrick, S. K. (2001). The policing of slavery in New Orleans, 1852-1860. Journal of Historical Sociology, 14, 397-417. http://dx.doi .org/10.1111/1467-6443.00153.
43. McIntosh, P. (1988). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. In V. Cyrus (Ed.), Experiencing race, class, and gender in the United States (pp. 209-213). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing.
44. Miyamoto, Y., & Ji, L. J. (2011). Power fosters context-independent, analytic cognition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 1449-1458. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167211411485.
45. Molina, N. (2014). How race is made in America: Immigration, citizenship, and the historical power of racial scripts. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
46. Moskowitz, G. B., Salomon, A. R., & Taylor, C. M. (2000). Preconsciously controlling stereotyping: Implicitly activated egalitarian goals prevent the activation of stereotypes. Social Cognition, 18, 151- 177. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/soco.2000.18.2.151.
47. Na, J., & Chan, M. Y. (2016). Subjective perception of lower social-class enhances response inhibition. Personality and Individual Differences, 90, 242-246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.027.
48. Na, J., Grossmann, I., Varnum, M. E. W., Kitayama, S., Gonzalez, R., & Nisbett, R. E. (2010). Cultural differences are not always reducible to individual differences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 6192-6197. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1073/pnas.1001911107.
49. Neville, H. A., Awad, G. H., Brooks, J. E., Flores, M. P., & Bluemel, J. (2013). Color-blind racial ideology: Theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology. American Psychologist, 68, 455-466. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0033282.
50. Neville, H. A., Coleman, M. N., Falconer, J. W., & Holmes, D. (2005). Color blind racial ideology and psychological false consciousness among African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 31, 27-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0095798404268287.
51. Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzaya, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108, 291-310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.198.2.291.
52. Norton, M. I., & Sommers, S. R. (2011). Whites see racism as a zero-sum game that they are now losing. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 215-218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406922.
53. Omi, M., & Winant, H. (2015). Racial formation in the United States (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
54. Phillips, L. T., & Lowery, B. S. (2015). The hard-knock life? White claim hardships in response to racial inequity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 61, 12-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.06 .0080022-1031.
55. Piff, P. K. (2014). Wealth and the inflated self: Class, entitlement, and narcissism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 34-43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167213501699.
56. Piff, P. K., Stancato, D. M., Côté, S., Mendoza-Denton, R., & Keltner, D. (2012). Higher social class predicts increased unethical behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 4086-4091. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118373109.
57. Pinterits, E. J., Poteat, V. P., & Spanierman, L. B. (2009). The White Privilege Attitudes Scale: Development and initial validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 417- 429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0016274.
58. Pulido, L. (2015). Geographies of race and ethnicity I: White supremacy vs. white privilege in environmental racism research. Progress in Human Geography, 39, 809-817. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030913251 4563008.
59. Schlosser, L. Z. (2003). Christian privilege: Breaking a sacred taboo. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 31, 44-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2003.tb00530.x.
60. Schuler, J., & Wanke, M. (2016). A fresh look at money priming: Feeling privileged or not makes a difference. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 7, 366-373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550616628608.
61. Seroczynski, A. D., & Jobst, A. D. (2016). Latino youth and the schoolto- prison pipeline: Addressing issues and achieving solutions. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 38, 423-445. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0739986316663926.
62. Shavitt, S., Jiang, D., & Cho, H. (2016). Stratification and segmentation: Social class in consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 26, 583-593. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2016.08.005.
63. Spanierman, L. B., Garriott, P. O., & Clark, D. A. (2013). Whiteness and social class: Intersections and implications. In W. M. Liu (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of social class in counseling (pp. 394-410). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398250.013.0024.
64. Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2007). Choice as an act of meaning: The case of social class. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 814-830. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514 .93.5.814.
65. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2015). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (7th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
66. Thompson, D. (2012). Making (mixed-) race: Census politics and the emergence of multiracial multiculturalism in the United States, Great Britain and Canada. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 35, 1409-1426. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2011.556194.
67. Todd, A. R., Thiem, K. C., & Neel, R. (2016). Does seeing faces of young Black boys facilitate the identification of threatening stimuli? Psychological Science, 27, 384 -393. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797 615624492.
68. van der Toorn, J., Feinberg, M., Jost, J. T., Kay, A. C., Tyler, T. R., Willer, R., & Wilmuth, C. (2014). A sense of powerlessness fosters system justification: Implications for the legitimation of authority, hierarchy, and government. Political Psychology, 36, 93-110. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1111/pops.12183.