The role of artificial and natural sweeteners in reducing the consumption of table sugar: A narrative review

Clinical Nutrition ESPEN

Volumn 18, Issue , 2017, Pages 1-8

  Mooradian, Arshag D ^a   Smith, Meridith ^a   Tokuda, Masaaki ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b KAGAWA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Artificial sweeteners

Indexed keywords

ERYTHRITOL; FOOD ADDITIVE; FRUCTOSE; GLYCOSYLATED HEMOGLOBIN; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; LACTITOL; MALTITOL; MANNITOL; NUTRITIVE SWEETENER; PSICOSE; SORBITOL; SUGAR; SUGAR ALCOHOL; SWEETENING AGENT; TREHALOSE; XYLITOL;

ARTIFICIALLY SWEETENED BEVERAGE; ATHEROGENESIS; BODY WEIGHT; CALORIC DENSITY; CALORIC INTAKE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); DIABETES MELLITUS; EPIGENETICS; GLUCONEOGENESIS; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INTESTINE FLORA; LIPID BLOOD LEVEL; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NONALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PREVALENCE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SUGAR INTAKE; WEIGHT GAIN; WEIGHT REDUCTION; ADMINISTRATION AND DOSAGE;

DIETARY SUCROSE; HUMANS; META-ANALYSIS AS TOPIC; OBESITY; SWEETENING AGENTS;

EID: 85011369451     PISSN: 24054577     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.clnesp.2017.01.004     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. [1] Kelly, T., Yang, W., Chen, C.S., Reynolds, K., He, J., Global burden of obesity in 2005 and projections to 2030. Int J Obes (Lond) 32 (2008), 1431–1437.
2. [2] Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., Kit, B.K., Flegal, K.M., Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011-2012. JAMA 311 (2014), 806–814.
3. [3] Hu, T., Bazzano, L.A., The low-carbohydrate diet and cardiovascular risk factors: evidence from epidemiologic studies. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 20 (2014), 1–7.
4. [4] Alexandraki, I., Palacio, C., Mooradian, A.D., Relative merits of low-carbohydrate versus low-fat diet in managing obesity. South Med J 108 (2015), 401–416.
5. [5] Eckel, R.H., Jakicic, J.M., Ard, J.D., Hubbard, V.S., de Jesus, J.M., Lee, I.M., et al. 2013 AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation 129:25 Suppl 2 (2014), S76–S99.
6. [6] Harcombe, Z., Baker, J.S., Cooper, S.M., Davies, B., Sculthorp, N., DiNicolantonio, J.J., et al. Evidence from randomized controlled trials did not support the introduction of dietary fat guidelines in 1977 and 1983: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Heart, 2, 2015, e000196.
7. [7] Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, Scientific report of the 2015 dietary guidelines advisory committee., 2015, US Department of Agriculture, US Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, 17.
8. [8] Colditz, G.A., Manson, J.E., Stampfer, M.J., Rosner, B., Willett, W.C., Speizer, F.E., Diet and risk of clinical diabetes in women. Am J Clin Nutr 55 (1992), 1018–1023.
9. [9] Janket, S.J., Manson, J.E., Sesso, H., Buring, J.E., Liu, S., A prospective study of sugar intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 26 (2003), 1008–1015.
10. [10] Meyer, K.A., Kushi, L.H., Jacobs, D.R. Jr., Slavin, J., Sellers, T.A., Folsom, A.R., Carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and incident type 2 diabetes in older women. Am J Clin Nutr 71 (2000), 921–930.
11. [11] Palmer, J.R., Boggs, D.A., Krishnan, S., Hu, F.B., Singer, M., Rosenberg, L., Sugar-sweetened beverages and incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in African American women. Arch Intern Med 168 (2008), 1487–1492.
12. [12] Livesey, G., Taylor, R., Fructose consumption and consequences for glycation, plasma triacylglycerol, and body weight: meta-analyses and metaregression models of intervention studies. Am J Clin Nutr 88 (2008), 1419–1437.
13. [13] Sievenpiper, J.L., Carleton, A.J., Chatha, S., Jiang, H.Y., de Souza, R.J., Beyene, J., et al. Heterogeneous effects of fructose on blood lipids in individuals with type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental trials in humans. Diabetes Care 32 (2009), 1930–1937.
14. [14] Malik, V.S., Popkin, B.M., Bray, G.A., Després, J.-P., Willett, W.C., Hu, F.B., Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. A meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 33 (2010), 2477–2483.
15. [15] Cozma, A.I., Sievenpiper, J.L., de Souza, R.J., Chiavaroli, L., Ha, V., Wang, D.D., et al. Effect of fructose on glycemic control in diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials. Diabetes Care 35 (2012), 1611–1620.
16. [16] Sievenpiper, J.L., de Souza, R.J., Mirrahimi, A., Yu, M.E., Carleton, A.J., Beyene, J., et al. Effect of fructose on body weight in controlled feeding trials: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Ann Intern Med 156 (2012), 291–304.
17. [17] Sievenpiper, J.L., Chiavaroli, L., de Souza, R.J., Mirrahimi, A., Cozma, A.I., Ha, V., et al. ‘Catalytic’ doses of fructose may benefit glycaemic control without harming cardiometabolic risk factors: a small meta-analysis of randomised controlled feeding trials. Br J Nutr 108 (2012), 418–423.
18. [18] Ha, V., Sievenpiper, J.L., de Souza, R.J., Chiavaroli, L., Wang, D.D., Cozma, A.I., et al. Effect of fructose on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials. Hypertension 59 (2012), 787–795.
19. [19] Wang, D.D., Sievenpiper, J.L., de Souza, R.J., Cozma, A.I., Chiavaroli, L., Ha, V., et al. Effect of fructose on postprandial triglycerides: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials. Atherosclerosis 232 (2014), 125–133.
20. [20] Wang, D.D., Sievenpiper, J.L., de Souza, R.J., Chiavaroli, L., Ha, V., Cozma, A.I., et al. The effects of fructose intake on serum uric acid vary among controlled dietary trials. J Nutr 142 (2012), 916–923.
21. [21] Chiu, S., Sievenpiper, J.L., de Souza, R.J., Cozma, A.I., Mirrahimi, A., Carleton, A.J., et al. Effect of fructose on markers of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): a systematic review and metaanalysis of controlled feeding trials. Eur J Clin Nutr 68 (2014), 416–423.
22. [22] Xi, B., Li, S., Liu, Z., Tian, H., Yin, X., Huai, P., et al. Intake of fruit juice and incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 9(3), 2014, e93471.
23. [23] Kelishadi, R., Mansourian, M., Heidari-Beni, M., Association of fructose consumption and components of metabolic syndrome in human studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition 30 (2014), 503–510.
24. [24] Greenwood, D.C., Threapleton, D.E., Evans, C.E., Cleghorn, C.L., Nykjaer, C., Woodhead, C., et al. Association between sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened soft drinks and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br J Nutr 112 (2014), 725–734.
25. [25] Te Morenga, L.A., Howatson, A.J., Jones, R.M., Mann, J., Dietary sugars and cardiometabolic risk: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of the effects on blood pressure and lipids. Am J Clin Nutr 100 (2014), 65–79.
26. [26] Chiavaroli, L., de Souza, R.J., Ha, V., Cozma, A.I., Mirrahimi, A., Wang, D.D., et al. Effect of fructose on established lipid targets: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials. J Am Heart Assoc, 4, 2015, e001700.
27. [27] Imamura, F., O'Connor, L., Ye, Z., Mursu, Hayashino, Y., Bhupathiraju, S.N., et al. Consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, artificially sweetened beverages, and fruit juice and incidence of type 2 diabetes: systematic review, meta-analysis, and estimation of population attributable fraction. BMJ, 351, 2015, h3576.
28. [28] Welsh, J.A., Sharma, A., Abramson, J.L., Vaccarino, V., Gillespie, C., Vos, M.B., Caloric sweetener consumption and dyslipidemia among US adults. JAMA 303 (2010), 1490–1497.
29. [29] Glinsmann, W.H., Irausquin, H., Park, Y.K., Evaluation of health aspects of sugars contained in carbohydrate sweeteners: report of Sugars Task Force, 1986. J Nutr 116:suppl (1986), S1–S216.
30. [30] Ventura, E.E., Davis, J.N., Goran, M.I., Sugar content of popular sweetened beverages based on objective laboratory analysis: focus on fructose content. Obes (Silver Spring) 19 (2011), 868–874.
31. [31] Johnson, R.K., Appel, L.J., Brands, M., Howard, B.V., Lefevre, M., Lustig, R.H., et al., American Heart Association Nutrition Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism and the Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Dietary sugars intake and cardiovascular health: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 120 (2009), 1011–1020.
32. [32] Stanhope, K.L., Schwarz, J.M., Keim, N.L., Griffen, S.C., Bremer, A.A., Graham, J.L., et al. Consuming fructose-sweetened, not glucose-sweetened, beverages increases visceral adiposity and lipids and decreases insulin sensitivity in overweight/obese humans. J Clin Invest 119 (2009), 1322–1334.
33. [33] Maersk, M., Belza, A., Stodkilde-Jorgensen, H., Ringgaard, S., Chabanova, E., Thomsen, H., et al. Sucrose-sweetened beverages increase fat storage in the liver, muscle, and visceral fat depot: a 6-mo randomized intervention study. Am J Clin Nutr 95 (2012), 283–289.
34. [34] Schalkwijk, C.G., Stehouwer, C.D., van Hinsbergh, V.W., Fructose-mediated non-enzymatic glycation: sweet coupling or bad modification. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 20 (2004), 369–382.
35. [35] Dills, W.L. Jr., Protein fructosylation: fructose and the Maillard reaction. Am J Clin Nutr 58 (1993), 779s–787s.
36. [36] Raben, A., Vasilaras, T.H., Moller, A.C., Astrup, A., Sucrose compared with artificial sweeteners: different effects on ad libitum food intake and body weight after 10 wk of supplementation in overweight subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 76 (2002), 721–772.
37. [37] Suzuki, T., Douard, V., Mochizuki, K., Goda, T., Ferraris, R.P., Diet-induced epigenetic regulation in vivo of the intestinal fructose transporter Glut5 during development of rat small intestine. Biochem J 435 (2011), 43–53.
38. [38] He, F.J., Nowson, C.A., MacGregor, G.A., Fruit and vegetable consumption and stroke: meta-analysis of cohort studies. Lancet 367 (2006), 320–326.
39. [39] Carter, P., Gray, L.J., Troughton, J., Khunti, K., Davies, M.J., Fruit and vegetable intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ, 341, 2010, c4229.
40. [40] Bellavia, A., Larsson, S.C., Bottai, M., Wolk, A., Orsini, N., Fruit and vegetable consumption and all-cause mortality: a dose-response analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 98 (2013), 454–459.
41. [41] Bray, G.A., Popkin, B.M., Dietary sugar and body weight: have we reached a crisis in the epidemic of obesity and diabetes?: health be damned! pour on the sugar. Diabetes Care 37 (2014), 950–956.
42. [42] Bazzano, L.A., Li, T.Y., Joshipura, K.J., Hu, F.B., Intake of fruit, vegetables, and fruit juices and risk of diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 31 (2008), 1311–1317.
43. [43] Flood-Obbagy, J.E., Rolls, B.J., The effect of fruit in different forms on energy intake and satiety at a meal. Appetite 52 (2009), 416–422.
44. [44] Chan, T.F., Lin, W.T., Huang, H.L., Lee, C.Y., Wu, P.W., Chiu, Y.W., et al. Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with components of the metabolic syndrome in adolescents. Nutrients 6 (2014), 2088–2103.
45. [45] Basu, S., McKee, M., Galea, G., Stuckler, D., Relationship of soft drink consumption to global overweight, obesity, and diabetes: a cross-national analysis of 75 countries. Am J Public Health 103 (2013), 2071–2077.
46. [46] Olsen, N.J., Heitmann, B.L., Intake of calorically sweetened beverages and obesity. Obes Rev 10 (2009), 68–75.
47. [47] Odegaard, A.O., Koh, W.P., Arakawa, K., Yu, M.C., Pereira, M.A., Soft drink and juice consumption and risk of physician-diagnosed incident type 2 diabetes: the Singapore Chinese Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 171 (2010), 701–708.
48. [48] Basu, S., Yoffe, P., Hills, N., Lustig, R.H., The relationship of sugar to population-level diabetes prevalence: an econometric analysis of repeated cross-sectional data. PLoS One, 8, 2013, e57873.
49. [49] Goran, M.I., Ulijaszek, S.J., Ventura, E.E., High fructose corn syrup and diabetes prevalence: a global perspective. Glob Public Health 8 (2013), 55–64.
50. [50] Yang, Q., Zhang, Z., Gregg, E.W., Flanders, W.D., Merritt, R., Hu, F.B., Added sugar intake and cardiovascular diseases mortality among US adults. JAMA Intern Med 174 (2014), 516–524.
51. [51] Bes-Rastrollo, M., Schulze, M.B., Ruiz-Canela, M., Martinez-Gonzalez, M.A., Financial conflicts of interest and reporting bias regarding the association between sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review of systematic reviews. PLoS Med, 10, 2013, e1001578.
52. [52] DiMeglio, D.P., Mattes, R.D., Liquid versus solid carbohydrate: effects on food intake and body weight. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24 (2000), 794–800.
53. [53] Tordoff, M.G., Alleva, A.M., Effect of drinking soda sweetened with aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup on food intake and body weight. Am J Clin Nutr 51 (1990), 963–969.
54. [54] DiNicolantonio, J.J., O'Keefe, J.H., Lucan, S.C., Added fructose: a principal driver of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its consequences. Mayo Clin Proc 90 (2015), 372–381.
55. [55] Sievenpiper, J.L., Tappy, L., Brouns, F., Fructose as a driver of diabetes: an incomplete view of the evidence. Mayo Clin Proc 90 (2015), 984–991.
56. [56] Hwang, L.-D., Zhu, G., Breslin, P.A.S., Reed, D.R., Martin, N.G., Wright, M.J., A common genetic influence on human intensity ratings of sugars and high-potency sweeteners. Twin Res Hum Genet 17 (2015;Jul), 1–7.
57. [57] Malnik, E., World Health Organization advises halving sugar intake. March 2014, The Telegraph http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/10677712/World-Health-Organisation-advises-halving-sugar-intake.html [Accessed 5 December 2016].
58. [58] Godshall, M.A., The expanding world of nutritive and non- nutritive sweeteners. Sugar J 69 (2007), 12–20.
59. [59] Chattopadhyay, S., Raychaudhuri, U., Chakraborty, R., Artificial sweeteners – a review. J Food Sci Technol 51 (2014), 611–621.
60. [60] Levin, G.V., Zehner, L.R., Saunders, J.P., Beadle, I.R., Sugar substitutes, their energy values, bulk characteristics and potential health benefits. Am J Clin Nutr 62 (1995), 1161–1168.
61. [61] George, V., Arora, S., Wadhwa, B.K., Singh, A.K., Analysis of multiple sweeteners and their degradation products in lassi by HPLC and HPTLC plates. J Food Sci Technol 47 (2010), 408–413.
62. [62] Kroger, M., Meister, K., Kava, R., Low-calorie sweeteners and other sugar substitutes: a review of the safety issues. Compr Rev Food Sci 5 (2006), 35–47.
63. [63] FAO/WHO, New requests for evaluation: advantame. Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme codex alimentarius commission, Thirty-fifth session, July 2-7, Rome, Italy, vol. 86, 2012, 18–19 www.codexalimentarius.org/input/download/report/775/REP12_FAe.pdfwww.codexalimentarius.org/input/download/report/.../REP12_FAe.pdf [Accessed 5 December 2016].
64. [64] U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Additional Information about High-Intensity Sweeteners Permitted for use in Food in the United States) http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm397725.htm#Advantame. [Accessed 5 December 2016].
65. [65] Suzuki, Y.A., Murata, Y., Inui, H., Sugiura, M., Nakano, Y., Triterpene glycosides of Siraitia grosvenori inhibit rat intestinal maltase and suppress the rise in blood glucose level after a single oral administration of maltose in rats. J Agric Food Chem 53 (2005), 2941–2946.
66. [66] Munro, I.C., Berndt, W.O., Borzelleca, J.F., Flamm, G., Lynch, B.S., Kennepohl, E., et al. Erythritol: an interpretive summary of biochemical, metabolic, toxicological and clinical data. Food Chem Toxicol 36 (1998), 1139–1174.
67. [67] Fowler, S.P., Williams, K., Resendez, R.G., Hunt, K.J., Hazuda, H.P., Stern, M.P., Fueling the obesity epidemic? Artificially sweetened beverage use and long-term weight gain. Obes (Silver Spring) 16 (2008), 1894–1900.
68. [68] Stellman, S.D., Garfinkel, L., Patterns of artificial sweetener use and weight change in an American Cancer Society prospective study. Appetite 11:Suppl 1 (1988), 85–91.
69. [69] de Koning, L., Malik, V.S., Rimm, E.B., Willett, W.C., Hu, F.B., Sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverage consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes in men. Am J Clin Nutr 93 (2011), 1321–1327.
70. [70] Fagherazzi, G., Vilier, A., Saes Sartorelli, D., Lajous, M., Balkau, B., Clavel-Chapelon, F., Consumption of artificially and sugar-sweetened beverages and incident type 2 diabetes in the Etude Epidemiologique aupres des femmes de la Mutuelle Generale de l'Education Nationale-European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort. Am J Clin Nutr 97 (2013), 517–523.
71. [71] O'Connor, L., Imamura, F., Lentjes, M.A., Khaw, K.T., Wareham, N.J., Forouhi, N.G., Prospective associations and population impact of sweet beverage intake and type 2 diabetes, and effects of substitutions with alternative beverages. Diabetologia 58 (2015), 1474–1483.
72. [72] Burke, M.V., Small, D.M., Physiological mechanisms by which non-nutritive sweeteners may impact body weight and metabolism. Physiol Behav 152:Pt B (2015), 381–388.
73. [73] Yang, Q., Gain weight by “going diet?” Artificial sweeteners and the neurobiology of sugar cravings: Neuroscience 2010. Yale J Biol Med 83 (2010), 101–108.
74. [74] Anton, S.D., Martin, C.K., Han, H., Coulon, S., Cefalu, W.T., Geiselman, P., et al. Effects of stevia, aspartame, and sucrose on food intake, satiety, and postprandial glucose and insulin levels. Appetite 55 (2010), 37–43.
75. [75] Feijó Fde, M., Ballard, C.R., Foletto, K.C., Batista, B.A., Neves, A.M., Ribeiro, M.F., et al. Saccharin and aspartame, compared with sucrose, induce greater weight gain in adult Wistar rats, at similar total caloric intake levels. Appetite 60 (2013), 203–207.
76. [76] Suez, J., Korem, T., Zeevi, D., Zilberman-Schapira, G., Thaiss, C.A., Maza, O., et al. Artificial sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut microbiota. Nature 514 (2014), 181–186.
77. [77] Izumori, K., Bioproduction strategy for rare hexose sugars. Naturwissenschaften 89 (2002), 120–124.
78. [78] Sun, Y., Hayakawa, S., Ogawa, M., Izumori, K., Antioxidant properties of custard pudding dessert containing rare hexose, D psicose. Food Control 18 (2007), 220–227.
79. [79] Sun, Y., Hayakawa, S., Ogawa, M., Fukada, K., Izumori, K., Influence of a rare sugar, d-psicose, on the physicochemical and functional properties of an aerated food system containing egg albumen. J Agric Food Chem 56 (2008), 4789–4796.
80. [80] Matsuo, T., Izumori, K., D-psicose inhibits intestinal α-glucosidase and suppresses glycemic response after carbohydrate ingestion in rats. Tech Bull Fac Agr, Kagawa Univ 58 (2006), 27–32.
81. [81] Matsuo, T., Inhibitory effects of D-psicose on glycemic responses after oral carbohydrate tolerance test in rats. J Jpn Soc Nutr Food Sci 59 (2006), 247–253.
82. [82] Iida, T., Kishimoto, Y., Yoshikawa, Y., Hayashi, N., Okuma, K., Tohi, M., et al. Acute D-psicose administration decreases the glycemic responses to an oral maltodextrin tolerence test in normal adults. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol 54 (2008), 511–524.
83. [83] Hayashi, N., Iida, T., Yamada, T., Okuma, K., Takehara, I., Yamamoto, T., et al. Study on the postprandial blood glucose suppression effect of D-psicose in borderline diabetes and the safety of long-term ingestion by normal human subjects. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 74 (2010), 510–519.
84. [84] Hossain, M.A., Kitagaki, S., Nakano, D., Nishiyama, A., Funamoto, Y., Matsunaga, T., et al. Rare sugar D-psicose improves insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in type 2 diabetes Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 405 (2011), 7–12.
85. [85] Espinosa, I., Fogelfeld, L., Tagatose: from a sweetener to a new diabetic medication?. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 19 (2010), 285–294.
86. [86] Livesey, G., Brown, J.C., D-Tagatose is a bulk sweetener with zero energy determined in rats. J Nutr 126 (1996), 1601–1609.
87. [87] Szepesi, B., Michaelis, O.E., Disaccharide effect - comparison of metabolic effects of the intake of disaccharide and of their monosaccharide equivalents. Macdonald, I., Vrana, A., (eds.) Metabolic effects of dietary carbohydrates, 4th ed., 1986, 192–219 Karger S Basel, Switzerland.
88. [88] Normen, L., Laerke, H.N., Jensen, B.B., Langkilde, A.M., Andersson, H., Small-bowel absorption of D-tagatose and related effects on carbohydrate digestibility: an ileostomy study. Am J Clin Nutr 73 (2001), 105–110.
89. [89] Mc Phearson, J.D., Shilton, B.H., Walton, D.J., Role of fructose in glycosylation and cross-linking of proteins. Biochemistry 27 (1988), 1901–1907.
90. [90] Bunn, H.F., Higgins, P.L., Reactions of monosaccharides with proteins- possible evolutionary significances. Science 213 (1994), 222–224.
91. [91] Ensor, M., Williams, J., Smith, R., Banfield, A., Lodder, R.A., Effects of three low-doses of d-tagatose on glycemic control over six months in subjects with mild type 2 diabetes mellitus under control with diet and exercise. J Endocrinol Diabetes Obes, 2, 2014, 1057.
92. [92] Li, Z., Gao, Y., Nakanishi, H., Gao, X., Cai, L., Biosynthesis of rare hexoses using microorganisms and related enzymes. Beilstein J Org Chem 9 (2013), 2434–2445.
93. [93] Murata, A., Sekiya, K., Watanabe, Y., Yamaguchi, F., Hatano, N., Izumori, K., et al. A novel inhibitory effect of D-allose on production of reactive oxygen species from neutrophils. J Biosci Bioeng 96 (2003), 89–91.
94. [94] Muneuchi, G., Hossain, A., Yamaguchi, F., Ueno, M., Tanaka, Y., Suzuki, S., et al. The rare sugar D-allose has a reducing effect against ischemia-reperfusion injury on the rat abdominal skin island flap model. J Surg Res 183 (2013), 976–981.
95. [95] Nakamura, T., Tanaka, S., Hirooka, K., Toyoshima, T., Kawai, N., Tamiya, T., et al. Anti-oxidative effects of d-allose, a rare sugar, on ischemia-reperfusion damage following focal cerebral ischemia in rat. Neurosci Lett 487 (2011), 103–106.
96. [96] Sui, L., Dong, Y., Watanabe, Y., Yamaguchi, F., Hatano, N., Tsukamoto, I., et al. The inhibitory effect and possible mechanisms of D-allose on cancer cell proliferation. Int J Oncol 27 (2005), 907–912.
97. [97] Yamaguchi, F., Takata, M., Kamitori, K., Nonaka, M., Dong, Y., Sui, L., et al. Rare sugar D-allose induces specific up-regulation of TXNIP and subsequent G1 cell cycle arrest in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by stabilization of p27kip1. Int J Oncol 32 (2008), 377–385.
98. [98] Mitani, T., Hoshikawa, H., Mori, T., Hosokawa, T., Tsukamoto, I., Yamaguchi, F., et al. Growth inhibition of head and neck carcinomas by D-allose. Head Neck 31 (2009), 1049–1055.
99. [99] http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2014/consultation-sugar-guideline/en/. [Accessed 11 September 2015].