Atrial fibrillation: The science behind its defiance

Aging and Disease

Volumn 7, Issue 5, 2016, Pages 635-656

  Czick, Maureen E ^a   Shapter, Christine L ^a   Silverman, David I ^a  

^a HARTFORD HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Antiarrhythmic drugs; Atrial fibrillation; Autonomic imbalance; Catheter ablation; Pathophysiology; Surgical maze procedure

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL L TYPE; FLECAINIDE; NEUROTRANSMITTER; PROCAINAMIDE; QUINIDINE; RYANODINE RECEPTOR; SOTALOL; VOLTAGE GATED SODIUM CHANNEL;

ACTION POTENTIAL; ACUPUNCTURE; ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; ASTHMA; ATRIAL FIBRILLATION; CATHETER ABLATION; CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CHRONIC STRESS; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DEPOLARIZATION; DIABETES MELLITUS; ECTOPIA CORDIS; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART ATRIUM REMODELING; HEART CYCLE; HEART SURGERY; HEMODIALYSIS; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTHYROIDISM; INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE; LIMBIC SYSTEM; MITRAL VALVE REGURGITATION; OBESITY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REFRACTORY PERIOD; REPOLARIZATION; REVIEW; SINUS NODE; SINUS NODE CONDUCTION VELOCITY; STENOSIS; YOGA;

EID: 85006380088     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21525250     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.14336/AD.2016.0211     Document Type: Review

References (275)

1. Arora R (2012). Recent insights into the role of the autonomic nervous system in the creation of substrate for atrial fibrillation: implications for therapies targeting the atrial autonomic nervous system. Circ Arrh Electrophysiology, 5: 850-859
2. Iwasaki Y, Nishida K, Kato T, Nattel S (2011). Atrial fibrillation pathophysiology: implications for management. Circulation, 124: 2264-2274
3. Menezes AR, Lavie CJ, DiNicolantonio JJ, O'Keefe J, Morin DP, Khatib S, et al. (2013). Atrial Fibrillation in the 21st Century: A Current Understanding of Risk Factors and Primary Prevention Strategies. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 88: 394-409
4. Kong MH, Lopes RD, Piccini JP, Hasselblad V, Bahnson TD, Al-Khatib SM (2010). Surgical maze procedure as a treatment for atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Cardiovascular Therapeutics, 28: 311-326
5. Chugh SS, Havmoeller R, Narayanan K, Singh D, Rienstra M, Benjamin EJ, et al. (2014). Worldwide epidemiology of atrial fibrillation: a Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study. Circulation, 129: 837-847
6. Go AS, Hylek EM, Philips KA, Chang Y, Henault LE, Selby JV, et al. (2001). Prevalence of diagnosed atrial fibrillation in adults: national implications for rhythm management and stroke prevention: the AnTicoagulation and Risk Factors in Atrial Fibrillation (ATRIA) Study. JAMA, 285: 2370-2375
7. Naccarelli GV, Varker H, Lin J, Schulman KL (2009). Increasing prevalence of atrial fibrillation in the United States. Am J Cardiol, 104: 1534-1539
8. Miyasaka Y, Barnes ME, Gersh BJ, Cha SS, Bailey KR, Abhayaratna WP, et al. (2006). Secular trends in incidence of atrial fibrillation in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1980 to 2000, and implications on the projections for future prevalence. Circulation, 114: 119-125
9. Coromilas J (2004) Obesity and atrial fibrillation: is one epidemic feeding the other? JAMA, 292: 2519-2520
10. Furberg CD, Psaty BM, Manolio TA, Gardin JM, Smith VE, Rautaharhu PM (1994). Prevalence of atrial fibrillation in elderly subjects (the Cardiovascular Health Study). Am J Cardiol, 74: 236-241
11. Villareal RP, Woodruff AL, Massumi A (2001). Gender and cardiac arrhythmias. Texas Heart Institute Journal, 28: 265-275
12. Yarnoz MJ, Curtis AB (2008). More reasons why men and women are not the same (gender differences in electrophysiology and arrhythmias). Am J Cardiol, 101: 1291-1296
13. Thomas K, Piccini JP, Liang L, Fonarow GC, Yancy CW, Peterson ED, et al. (2013). Racial differences in the prevalence and outcomes of atrial fibrillation among patients hospitalized with heart failure. Journal of the American Heart Association, 2: e000200
14. Fatkin D, Otway R, Vandenberg JI (2007). Genes and atrial fibrillation: A new look at an old problem. Circulation, 116: 782-792
15. Lubitz SA, Ozcan C, Magnani JW, Kaab S, Benjamin ES, Ellinor PT (2010). Genetics of atrial fibrillation: Implications for future research directions and personalized medicine. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 3: 291-299
16. Tucker NR, Ellinor PT (2014). Emerging directions in the genetics of atrial fibrillation. Circ Res, 114: 1469-1482
17. Calvo N, Brugada J, Sitges M, Mont L (2012). Atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter in athletes. Br J Sports Med, 46 Suppl 1:i37-i43
18. Lau Y-F, Yiu K-H, Siu CW, Tse H-F (2012). Hypertension and atrial fibrillation: epidemiology, pathophysiology and therapeutic implications. J Hum Hypertens, 26: 563-569
19. Verdecchia P, Reboldi G, Gattobigio R, Bentivoglio M, Borgioni C, Angeli F, et al. (2003). Atrial fibrillation in hypertension: predictors and outcome. Hypertension, 41: 218-223
20. Bunch TJ, Packer DL, Jahangir A, Locke GR, Talley NJ, Gersh BJ, et al. (2008). Long-term risk of atrial fibrillation with symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux disease and esophagitis. Am J Cardiol, 102: 1207-1211
21. Chan WL, Yang KP, Chao TF, Huang CC, Huang PH, Chen YC, et al. (2014). The association of asthma and atrial fibrillation: a nationwide population-based nested case-control study. Int J Cardiol, 176: 464-469
22. Warnier MJ, Rutten FH, Kors JA, Lammers JW, de Boer A, Hoes AW, et al. (2012). Cardiac arrhythmias in adult patients with asthma. J Asthma, 49: 942-946
23. Sekine Y, Kesler KA, Behnia M, Brooks-Brunn J, Sekine E, Brown JW (2001). COPD may increase the incidence of refractory supraventricular arrhythmias following pulmonary resection for non-small cell lung cancer. Chest, 120: 1783-1790
24. Vretzakis G, Simeoforidou M, Stamoulis K, Bareka M (2013). Supraventricular arrhythmias after thoracotomy: is there a role for autonomic imbalance? Anesthesiology Research and Practice, 2013: 413985
25. Abbott KC, Trespalacios FC, Taylor AJ, Agodoa LY (2003). Atrial fibrillation in chronic dialysis patients in the United States: risk factors for hospitalization and mortality. BMC Nephrology, 4: 1
26. Atta MG (2011). Atrial fibrillation in dialysis patients: a neglected comorbidity. J Am Soc Nephrol, 22: 203-205
27. Zebe H (2000). Atrial fibrillation in dialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 15: 765-768
28. Dublin S, Glazer NL, Smith NL, Psaty BM, Lumley T, Wiggins KL, et al (2010). Diabetes mellitus, glycemic control, and risk of atrial fibrillation. J Gen Intern Med, 25: 853-858
29. Patel D, McConkey ND, Sohaney R, McNeil A, Jedrzejczyk A, Armaganijan L (2013). A systematic review of depression and anxiety in patients with atrial fibrillation: the heart-mind link. Cardiovasc Psychiatry Neurol, 2013: 158850
30. Grigioni F, Avierinos JF, Ling LH, Scott CG, Bailey KR, Tajik AJ et al. (2002). Atrial fibrillation complicating the course of degenerative mitral regurgitation. J Am Coll Cardiol, 40: 84-92
31. Keren G, Etzion T, Sherez J, Zelcer AA, Megidish R, Miller HI, et al. (1987). Atrial fibrillation and atrial enlargement in patients with mitral stenosis. Am Heart J, 114: 1146-1155
32. Probst P, Goldschlager N, Selzer A (1973). Left atrial size and atrial fibrillation in mitral stenosis: factors influencing their relationship. Circulation, 48: 1282-1287
33. N J, Francis J (2005). Atrial fibrillation and hyperthyroidism. Indian Pacing and Electrophysiol J, 5: 305-311
34. Mariscalco G, Klersy C, Zanobini M, Banach M, Ferrarese S, Borsani P, et al. (2008) Atrial fibrillation after isolated coronary surgery affects late survival. Circulation,118: 1612-1618
35. Mathew JP, Fontes ML, Tudor IC, Ramsay J, Duke P, Mazer CD, et al. (2004). A multicenter risk index for atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery. JAMA, 291: 1720-1729
36. Echahidi N, Pibarot P, O'Hara G, Mathieu P (2008). Mechanisms, prevention, and treatment of atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery. J Am Coll Cardiol, 51: 793-801
37. Gomez-Caro A, Moradiellos FJ, Ausin P, Diaz-Hellin V, Larru E, Perez-Anton JA, et al. (2006). Risk factors for atrial fibrillation after thoracic surgery. Arch Bronchoneumol, 42: 9-13
38. Wanahita N, Messerli FH, Bangalore S, Gami AS, Somers VK, Steinberg JS (2008). Atrial fibrillation and obesity results of a meta-analysis. Am Heart J, 155: 310-315
39. Asirvatham SJ, Kapa S (2009). Sleep apnea and atrial fibrillation: the autonomic link. J Am Coll Cardiol, 54: 2084-2086
40. Gami AS, Pressman G, Caples SM, Kanagala R, Gard JJ, Davison DE, et al. (2004). Association of atrial fibrillation and obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation, 110: 364-367
41. Monahan D, Redline S (2011). Role of obstructive sleep apnea in cardiovascular disease. Curr Opin Cardiol, 26: 541-547
42. Hansson A, Madsen-Hardig B, Olsson SB (2004). Arrhythmia-provoking factors and symptoms at the onset of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: a study based on interviews with 100 patients seeking hospital assistance. BMC Cardiovasc Disord, 4: 13
43. Mandyam MC, Vedantham V, Scheinman MM, Tseng ZH, Badhwar N, Lee, BK, et al. (2012). Alcohol and Vagal Tone as Triggers for Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation. Am J Cardiol, 110: 364-368
44. Heeringa J, Kors JA, Hofman A, van Rooij FJ, Witteman JC (2008). Cigarette smoking and risk of atrial fibrillation: the Rotterdam study. Am Heart J, 156: 1163-1169
45. Krijthe BP, Heeringa J, Hofman A, Franco OH, Stricker BH (2014). Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the risk of atrial fibrillation: a population-based follow-up study. BMJ Open, 4: e004059
46. Varriale P, Ramaprasad, S (1993). Aminophylline induced atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Elextrophysiol, 16: 1953-1955
47. Shen J, Johnson VM, Sullivan LM, Jacques PF, Magnani JW, Lubitz SA, et al. (2011). Dietary factors and incident atrial fibrillation: the Framingham Heart Study. Am J Clin Nutr, 93: 261-266
48. Conen D, Chiuve SE, Everett BM, Zhang SM, Buring JE, Albert CM (2010). Caffeine consumption and incident atrial fibrillation in women. Am J Clin Nutr, 92: 509-514
49. Bhave PD, Hoffmayer K (2013). Caffeine and atrial fibrillation: friends or foes? Heart, 99: 1377-1378
50. Caldeira D, Martins C, Alves LB, Pereira H, Ferreira JJ, Costa J (2013). Caffeine does not increase the risk of atrial fibrillation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Heart, 99: 1383-1389
51. Kozlowski D, Budrejko S, Lip GY, Rysz J, Mikhailidis DP, Raczak G,et al. (2010). Lone atrial fibrillation: what do we know? Heart, 96: 498-503
52. Wakili R, Voigt N, Kaab S, Dobrev D, Nattel S (2011). Recent advances in the molecular pathophysiology of atrial fibrillation. J Clin Invest, 121: 2955-2968
53. Nattel S (2002). New ideas about atrial fibrillation 50 years on. Nature, 415: 219-226
54. Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, Adams RJ, Berry JD, Brown TM, et al. (2011). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2011 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 123: e18-e209
55. Benjamin EJ, Chen PS, Bild DE, Mascette AM, Albert CM, Alonso A, et al. (2009). Prevention of atrial fibrillation: Report from a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute workshop. Circulation, 119: 606-618
56. Chou CC, Chen PS (2009). New concepts in atrial fibrillation: neural mechanisms and calcium dynamics. Cardiol Clin, 27: 35-43
57. Chen PS, Wu TJ, Ikeda T, Onf JJ, Kim YH, Yashima M, et al. (1998). Focal source hypothesis of atrial fibrillation. J Electrocardiol, 31 Suppl: 32-34
58. Gilmour Jr RF, Zipes DP (2004). Mechanisms of disease: new mechanisms of antiarrhythmic actions. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med, 1: 37-41
59. Moe GK, Rheinboldt WC, Abildskov JA (1964). A computer model of atrial fibrillation. Am Heart J, 67: 200-220
60. Kapa S, Asirvatham SJ (2009). Atrial fibrillation: focal or reentrant or both? A new autonomic lens to examine an old riddle. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 2: 345-348
61. Saltzman HE (2014). Arrhythmias and heart failure. Cardiol Clin, 32: 125-133
62. Coote JH (2013). Myths and realities of the cardiac vagus. J Physiol, 591: 4073-4085
63. Gaztanaga L, Matchlinski FE, Betensky BP (2012). Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias. Rev Esp Cardiol, 65: 174-185
64. Finet JE, Rosenbaum DS, Donahue JK (2009). Information learned from animal models of atrial fibrillation. Cardiol Clin, 27: 45-54
65. Cabo C, Wit AL (1997). Cellular electrophysiologic mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias. Cardiol Clin, 15: 517-538
66. Nattel S, Burstein B, Dobrev D (2008). Atrial Remodeling and atrial fibrillation: mechanisms and implications. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 1: 62-73
67. Campbell K, Calvo CJ, Mironov S, Herron T, Berenfeld O (2012). Spatial gradients in action potential duration created by regional magnetofection of hERG are a substrate for wavebreak and turbulent propagation in cardiomyocyte monolayers. J Physiol, 590: 6363-6379
68. DiFrancesco D, Borer JS (2007). The funny current: cellular basis for the control of heart rate. Drugs, 67 Suppl 2: 15-24
69. Grant AO (2009). Cardiac ion channels. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 2: 185-194
70. Workman AJ, Kane KA, Rankin AC (2008). Cellular bases for human atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 5: S1-S6
71. John RM, Tedrow UB, Koplan BA, Albert CA, Epstein LM, Sweeney MO, et al. (2012). Ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Lancet, 380: 1520-1529
72. Zipes DP, Knope RF (1972). Electrical properties of the thoracic veins. Am J Cardiol, 29: 372-376
73. Masani F (1986). Node-like cells in the myocardial layer of the pulmonary vein of rats: an ultrastructural study. J Anat, 145: 133-142
74. Tan AY, Chen PS, Chen LS, Fishbein MC (2007). Autonomic nerves in pulmonary veins. Heart Rhythm, 4: S57-S60
75. Shen MJ, Zipes DP (2014). Role of the autonomic nervous system in modulating cardiac arrhythmias. Circ Res, 114: 1004-1021
76. Haissaguerre M, Jais P, Shah DC, Takahashi A, Hocini M, Quiniou G, et al. (1998). Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating in the pulmonary veins. N Engl J Med, 339: 659-666
77. Jais P, Haissaguerre M, Shah DC, Chouairi S, Gencel L, Jocini M, et al. (1997). A focal source of atrial fibrillation treated by discrete radiofrequency ablation. Circulation, 95: 572-576
78. Oral H, Ozaydin M, Tada H, Chugh A, Scharf C, Hassan S, et al. (2002). Mechanistic significance of intermittent pulmonary vein tachycardia in patients with atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiology, 13: 645-650
79. Tsai C, Tai C, Hsieh M, Lin WS, Yu WC, Ueng KC, et al. (2000). Initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating from the superior vena cava: electrophysiological characteristics and results of radiofrequency ablation. Circulation, 102: 67-74
80. Chen YC, Chen SA, Chen YJ, Chang MS, Chan P, Lin CI (2002). Effects of thyroid hormone on the arrhythmogenic activity of pulmonary vein cardiomyocytes. J Am Coll Cardiol, 39: 366-372
81. Mathew ST, Patel J, Joseph S (2009). Atrial fibrillation: mechanistic insights and treatment options. Eur J Intern Med, 20: 672-681
82. Dorian P (2005). Antiarrhythmic action of beta-blockers: potential mechanisms. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Therapeut, 10 Suppl: s15-s22
83. Yang ZF, Wang HW, Zheng YQ, Zhang Y, Liu YM, Li CZ (2008). Possible arrhythmiogenic mechanism produced by ibuprofen. Acta Pharmacol Sin, 29: 421-429
84. Chou CC, Zhou S, Tan AY, Hayashi H, Nihei M, Chen PS (2005). High-density mapping of pulmonary veins and left atrium during ibutilide administration in a canine model of sustained atrial fibrillation. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 289: H2704-H2713
85. Hamabe A, Okuyama Y, Miyauchi Y, Zhou S, Pak HN, Karagueuzian HS, et al. (2003). Correlation between anatomy and electrical activation in canine pulmonary veins. Circulation, 107: 1550-1555
86. Klatsky AL (2009). Alcohol and cardiovascular diseases. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther, 7: 499-506
87. Rosenberg MA, Manning WJ (2012). Diastolic dysfunction and risk of atrial fibrillation: a mechanistic appraisal. Circulation, 126: 2353-2362
88. Guasch E, Benito B, Qi X, Cifelli C, Naud P, Shi Y, et al. (2013). Atrial fibrillation promotion by endurance exercise: demonstration and mechanistic exploration in an animal model. J Am Coll Cardiol, 62: 68-77
89. Saygili E, Rana OR, Reuter H, Frank K, Schwinger RH, Muller-Ehmsen J, et al. Losartan prevents stretch-induced electrical remodeling in cultured atrial neonatal myocytes. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 292: H2898-H2905
90. Arora R, Ng J, Ulphani J, Mylonas I, Subacius H, Shade G, et al. (2007). Unique autonomic profile of the pulmonary veins and posterior left atrium. J Am Coll Cardiol, 49: 1340-1348
91. Cheung DW (1981). Electrical activity of the pulmonary vein and its interaction with the right atrium in the guinea pig. J Physiol, 314: 445-456
92. Bielecka-Dabrowa A, Mikhailidis DP, Rysz J, Banach M (2009). The mechanisms of atrial fibrillation in hyperthyroidism. Thyroid Research, 2:4
93. Hu Y, Jones SV, Dillmann WH (2005). Effects of hyperthyroidism on delayed rectifier potassium currents in left and right murine atria. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 289: H1448-1455
94. Fox CS, Parise H, D'Agostino RB, Lloyd-Jones DM, Vasan RS, Wang TJ, et al. (2004). Parental atrial fibrillation as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation in offspring. JAMA, 291: 2851-2855
95. Guo Y, Lip GYH, Apostolakis S (2012). Inflammation in atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol, 60: 2263-2270
96. Hu YF, Chen YJ, Lin YJ, Chen SA (2015). Inflammation and the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation. Nat Rev Cardiol, 12: 230-243
97. Palin CA, Kailasam R, Hogue Jr. CW (2004). Atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery: pathophysiology and treatment. Semin in Cardiothorac and Vasc Anesth, 8: 175-183
98. Bidar E, Bramer S, Maesen B, Maessen JG, Schotten U (2013). Post-operative atrial fibrillation-pathophysiology, treatment and prevention. J Atr Fibrillation, 5: 136-145
99. Ishii Y, Schuessler RB, Gaynor SL, Yamada K, Fu AS, Boineau JP, et al. (2005). Inflammation of atrium after cardiac surgery is associated with inhomogeneity of atrial conduction and atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 111: 2881-2888
100. Terrenoire C, Clancy CE, Cormier JW, Sampson KJ, Kass RS (2005). Autonomic control of cardiac action potentials: role of potassium channel kinetics in response to sympathetic stimulation. Circ Res, 96: e25-e34
101. Chen PS, Tan AY (2007). Autonomic nerve activity and atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 4 Suppl 3: S61-S64
102. Grassi G, Seravalle G, Dell'Oro R, Turri C, Pasqualinotto L, Colombo M, et al. (2001). Participation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis in the sympathetic activation of human obesity. Hypertension, 38: 1316-1320
103. Aytemir K, Deniz A, Yavuz B, Ugur Demir A, Sahiner L, Cifti O, et al. (2006). Increased myocardial vulnerability and autonomic nervous system imbalance in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Respir Med, 101: 1277-1282
104. Roche F, Xuong ANT, Court-Fortune I, Costes F, Pichot V, Duverney D, et al. (2003). Relationship among the severity of sleep apnea syndrome, cardiac arrhythmias, and autonomic imbalance. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 26: 669-677
105. Grippo AJ, Moffitt JA, Johnson AK (2002). Cardiovascular alterations and autonomic imbalance in an experimental model of depression. Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, 282: R1333-R1341
106. Carnethon MR, Jacobs DR, Sidney S, Liu K (2003). Influence of autonomic nervous system dysfunction on the development of Type 2 Diabetes: The CARDIA Study. Diabetes Care, 26: 3035-3041
107. Wright RJ (2012). Stress-related programming of autonomic imbalance: role in allergy and asthma. Chem Immunol Allergy, 98: 32-47
108. Thayer JF, Yamamoto SS, Brosschot JF (2010). The relationship of autonomic imbalance, heart rate variability and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Int J Cardiol, 141: 122-131
109. Florea VG, Cohn JN (2014). The autonomic nervous system and heart failure. Circ Res, 114: 1815-1826
110. Binkley PF, Nunziata E, Haas GJ, Nelson SD, Cody RJ (1991). Parasympathetic withdrawal is an integral component of autonomic imbalance in congestive heart failure: demonstration in human subjects and verification in a paced canine model of ventricular failure. J Am Coll Cardiol, 18: 464-472
111. Iellamo F, Legramante JM, Pigozzi F, Spataro A, Norbiato G, Lucini D, et al. (2002). Conversion from vagal to sympathetic predominance with strenuous training in high-performance world class athletes. Circulation, 105: 2719-2724
112. Yamamoto K, Miyachi M, Saitoh T, Yoshioka A, Onodera S (2001). Effects of endurance training on resting and post-exercise cardiac autonomic control. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33: 1496-1502
113. Pichot V, Busso T, Roche F, Garet M, Costes F, Duverney D, et al. (2002). Autonomic adaptations to intensive and overload training periods: a laboratory study. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 34: 1660-1666
114. Sharifov OF, Fedorov VV, Beloshapko GG, Glukhov AV, Yushmanova AV, Rosenshtraukh LV (2004). Roles of adrenergic and cholinergic stimulation in spontaneous atrial fibrillation in dogs. J Am Coll Cardiol, 43: 483-490
115. Zhou Q, Hu J, Guo Y, Zhang F, Yang X, ZhangL, et al. (2013). Effect of the stellate ganglion on atrial fibrillation and atrial electrophysiological properties and its left-right asymmetry in a canine model. Exp Clin Cardiol, 18: 38-42
116. Coumel P (1994). Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: a disorder of autonomic tone? Eur Heart J, 15 Suppl: 9-16
117. Tomita T, Takei M, Saikawa Y, Hanaoka T, Uchikawa SI, Tsutsui H, et al. Role of autonomic tone in initiation and termination of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in patients without structural heart disease. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 14: 559-564
118. Bettoni M, Zimmerman M (2002). Autonomic tone variations before the onset of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 105: 2753-2759
119. Gould PA, Yii M, McLean C, Finch S, Marshall T, Lambert GW, et al. (2006). Evidence for increased atrial sympathetic innervation in persistent human atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol, 29: 821-829
120. Deneke T, Chaar H, de Groot JR, Wilde AA, Lawo T, Mundig J, et al. (2011). Shift in the pattern of autonomic atrial innervation in subjects with persistent atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 8: 1357-1363
121. Patterson E, Po SS, Scherlag BJ, Lazzara R (2005). Triggered firing in pulmonary veins initiated by in vitro autonomic stimulation. Heart Rhythm, 2: 624-631
122. Amar D, Zhang H, Miodownik S, Kadish AH (2003). Competing autonomic mechanisms precede the onset of postoperative atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol, 42: 1262-1268
123. Thayer JF, Lane RD (2007). The role of vagal function in the risk for cardiovascular disease and mortality. Biol Psychol, 74: 224-242
124. Brooks AG, Stiles MK, Laborderie J, Lau DH, Kuklik P, Shipp NJ, et al. (2010). Outcomes of long-standing persistent atrial fibrillation ablation: a systematic review. Heart Rhythm, 7: 835-846
125. Thayer JF (2009). Vagal tone and the inflammatory reflex. Cleve Clinic J Med, 76 Suppl 2: S23-S26
126. Feldstein C, Julius S (2009). The complex interaction between overweight, hypertension, and sympathetic overactivity. J Am Soc of Hypertens, 3: 353-365
127. O'Connor TM, O'Halloran DJ, Shanahan F (2000). The stress response and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: from molecule to melancholia. Q J Med, 93: 323-333
128. Benarroch EE (1993). The central autonomic network: functional organization, dysfunction, and perspective. Mayo Clin Proc, 68: 988-1001
129. McEwen BS (2000). The neurobiology of stress: from serendipity to clinical relevance. Brain Res, 886: 172-189
130. Ulrich-Lai YM, Herman JP (2009). Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nat Rev Neurosci, 10: 397-409
131. Schlenker EH (2005). Integration in the PVN: another piece of the puzzle. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 289: R653-655
132. Dampney RA, Coleman MJ, Fontes MA, Hirooka Y, Horiuchi J, Li YW, et al. (2002). Central mechanisms underlying short-term and long-term regulation of the cardiovascular system. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol, 29: 261-268
133. Machado BH, Mauad H, Chianca Junior DA, Haibara AS, Colombari E (1997). Autonomic processing of the cardiovascular reflexes in the nucleus tractus solitarii. Braz J Med Biol Res, 30: 533-543
134. LaBar KS, Cabeza R (2006). Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nat Rev Neurosci, 7: 54-64
135. LeDoux J (2003). The emotional brain, fear, and the amygdala. Cell and Mol Neurobiol, 23: 727-738
136. Phelps EA (2004). Human emotion and memory: interactions of the amygdala and hippocampal complex. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 14: 198-202
137. Veinante P, Yalcin I, Barrot M (2013). The amygdala between sensation and affect: a role in pain. J Mol Psychiatry, 1: 9-23
138. Everly GS, Lating JM (2013). The Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Stress Response. In: Everly GS, Lating JM. A Clinical Guide to the Treatment of the Human Stress Response, 3rd ed. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, 17-51
139. Sah P, Faber ES, Lopez de Armentia M, Power J. (2003). The amygdaloid complex: anatomy and physiology. Physiol Rev, 83: 803-834
140. Vyas A, Bernal S, Chattarji S (2003). Effects of chronic stress on dendritic arborization in the central and extended amygdala. Brain Res, 965: 290-294
141. Vyas A, Pillai AG, Chattarji S (2004). Recovery after chronic stress fails to reverse amygdaloid neuronal hypertrophy and enhanced anxiety-like behavior. Neuroscience 128: 667-673
142. Vyas A, Jadhav S, Chattarji S (2006). Prolonged behavioral stress enhances synaptic connectivity in the basolateral amygdala. Neuroscience, 143: 387-393
143. Alkadhi K (2013). Brain physiology and pathophysiology in mental stress. ISRN Physiology, 2013: 806104
144. Palkovits M (1999). Interconnections between the neuroendocrine hypothalamus and the central autonomic system. Front Neuroendocrinol, 20: 270-295
145. Carlson LE, Campbell TS, Garland SN, Grossman P (2007). Associations among salivary cortisol, melatonin, catecholamines, sleep quality and stress in women with breast cancer and healthy controls. J Behav Med, 30: 45-58
146. Kirschbaum C, Hellhammer DH (1994). Salivary cortisol in psychoneuroendocrine research: recent developments and applications. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 19: 313-333
147. Wood SK (2014). Cardiac autonomic imbalance by social stress in rodents: understanding putative biomarkers. Front Psychol, 5: 950
148. Cacioppo JT, Burleson MH, Poehlmann KM, Malarkey WB, Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Berntson GG, et al. (2000). Autonomic and neuroendocrine responses to mild psychological stressors: effects of chronic stress on older women. Ann Behav Med, 22: 140-148
149. Vrijkotte TG, van Doornen LJ, de Geus EJ (2000). Effects of work stress on ambulatory blood pressure, heart rate, and heart rate variability. Hypertension, 35: 880-886
150. Takase B, Akima T, Satomura K, Ohsuzu F, Mastui T, Ishihara M, et al. (2004). Effects of chronic sleep deprivation on autonomic activity by examining heart rate variability, plasma catecholamine, and intracellular magnesium levels. Biomed Pharmacother, 58 Suppl: S35-S39
151. Lange HW, Herrmann-Lingen C (2007). Depressive symptoms predict recurrence of atrial fibrillation after cardioversion. J Psychosom Res, 63: 509-513
152. Yu SB, Hu W, Zhao QY, Qin M, Huang H, Cui HY, et al. (2012). Effect of anxiety and depression on the recurrence of persistent atrial fibrillation after circumferential pulmonary vein ablation. Chin Med J (Engl), 125: 4368-4372
153. Wyndham CR (2000). Atrial fibrillation: the most common arrhythmia. Texas Heart Institute Journal, 27: 257-267
154. Wijffels MC, Kirchhof CJ, Dorland R, Allessies MA (1995). Atrial fibrillation begets atrial fibrillation: a study in awake chronically instrumented goats. Circulation, 92: 1954-1968
155. Jalife J (2014). Novel upstream approaches to prevent atrial fibrillation perpetuation. Cardiol Clin, 32: 637-650
156. Ausma J, Litjens N, Lenders MH, Duimel H, Mast F, Wouters L, et al. (2001). Time course of atrial fibrillation-induced cellular structural remodeling in atria of the goat. J Mol Cell Cardiol, 33: 2083-2094
157. Ausma J, van der Velden HM, Lenders MH, van Ankeren EP, Jongsma HJ, Ramaekers FC, et al. (2003). Reverse structural and gap-junctional remodeling after prolonged atrial fibrillation in the goat. Circulation, 107: 2051-2058
158. Camelliti P, Borg TK, Kohl P (2005). Structural and functional characterization of cardiac fibroblasts. Cardiovasc Res, 65: 40-51
159. Souders CA, Bowers SL, Baudino TA (2009). Cardiac fibroblast: the renaissance cell. Circ Res, 105: 1164-1176
160. Partemi S, Batlle M, Berne P, Berruezo A, Campos B, Mont L, et al. (2013). Analysis of the arrhythmogenic substrate in human heart failure. Cardiovasc Pathol, 22: 133-140
161. Cuspidi, C, Ciulla M, Zanchetti A (2006). Hypertensive myocardial fibrosis. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 21: 20-23
162. Aronow, WS (2008). Etiology, pathophysiology, and treatment of atrial fibrillation: part 1. Cardiol Rev, 16: 181-188
163. Wolf PA, Abbott RD, Kannel WB (1991). Atrial fibrillation as an independent risk factor for stroke: the Framingham Study. Stroke, 22: 983-988
164. Dimitri H, Ng M, Brooks AG, Kuklik P, Stiles MK, Lau DH, et al. (2012). Atrial remodeling in obstructive sleep apnea: implications for atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 9: 321-327
165. Marott SC, Nordestgaard BG, Zacho J, Friberg J, Jensen GB, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, et al. (2010). Does elevated C-reactive protein increase atrial fibrillation risk? A Mendelian randomization of 47,000 individuals from the general population. J Am Coll Cardiol, 56: 789-795
166. Marcus GM, Smith LM, Ordovas K, Scheinman MM, Kim AM, Badhwar N, et al. (2010). Intracardiac and extracardiac markers of inflammation during atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 7: 149-154
167. Rizos R, Rigopoulos AG, Kalogeropoulos AS, Tsiodras S, Dragomanovits S, Sakadakis EA, et al. (2010). Hypertension and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: a novel predictive role of high sensitivity C-reactive protein in cardioversion and long-term recurrence. J Hum Hypertens, 24: 447-457
168. Li J, Solus J, Chen Q, Rho YH, Milne G, Stein CM, et al. (2010). Role of inflammation and oxidative stress in atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 7: 438-444
169. Chung MK, Martin DO, Sprecher D, Wazni O, Kanderian A, Carnes CA, et al. (2001). C-reactive protein elevation in patients with atrial arrhythmias: inflammatory mechanisms and persistence of atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 104: 2886-2891
170. Patti G, Chello M, Candura D, Pasceri V, D'Ambrosio A, Covino E, et al. (2006). Randomized trial of atorvastatin for reduction of postoperative atrial fibrillation in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: results of the ARMYDA-3 (Atorvastatin for Reduction of MYocardial Dysrhythmia After cardiac surgery) study. Circulation, 114: 1455-1461
171. Ho KM, Tan JA (2009). Benefits and risks of corticosteroid prophylaxis in adult cardiac surgery: a dose-response meta-analysis. Circulation. 119: 1853-1866
172. Hatem S, Le Grand B, Le Heuzey JY, Couetil JP, Droubaix E (1992). Differential effects of quinidine and flecainide on plateau duration of human atrial action potential duration. Basic Res Cardiol. 87: 600-609
173. Hiraoka M, Sawada K, Kawano S (1986). Effects of quinidine on plateau currents of guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. J Mol Cell Cardiol, 19: 1097-1106
174. Bhakta D, Miller JM (2007). Pharmacologic targets for atrial fibrillation. Expert Opin Ther Targets, 11: 1161-1178
175. Ridley JM, Milnes JT, Benest AV, Masters JD, Witchel HJ, Hancox JC (2003). Characterization of recombinant HERG K+ channel blockade by the class Ia antiarrhythmic drug procainamide. Biochem and Biophys Res Commun, 306: 388-393
176. Tsujimae K, Suzuki S, Yamada M, Kurachi Y (2004). Comparison of kinetic properties of quinidine and dofetilide block of HERG channels. Eur J Pharmacol, 493: 29-40
177. Paul AA, Witchel HJ, Hancox JC (2002). Inhibition of the current of heterologously expressed HERG potassium channels by flecainide and comparison with quinidine, propafenone and lignocaine. Br J Pharmacol 135: 717-729
178. Falk RH (1989). Flecainide-induced ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation in patients treated for atrial fibrillation. Ann Intent Med, 111: 107-111
179. Echt DS, Liebson PR, Mitchell LB, Peters RW, Obias-Manno D, Barker AH et al. (1991). Mortality and Morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide, or Vaughan-The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial. N Engl J Med, 324: 782-788
180. Greene HL, Roden DM, Katz RJ, Woosley RL, Salerno DM, Henthorn RW (1992). The cardiac arrhythmia suppression trial: First CAST...then CAST II. J Am Coll Cardiol, 19: 894-898
181. Purerfellner H (2004). Recent developments in cardiovascular drug therapy: treatment of atrial arrhythmias with new class III drugs and beyond. Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents, 2: 79-91
182. Coplen SE, Antmann EM, Berlin JA, Hewitt P, Chalmers TC (1990). Efficacy and safety of quinidine therapy for maintenance of sinus rhythm after cardioversion: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Circulation, 82: 1106-1116
183. Reiffel JA, Naccarelli GV (2006). Antiarrhythmic drug therapy for atrial fibrillation: Are the guidelines guiding clinical practice? Clin Cardiol, 29: 97-102
184. Connolly SJ, Cybulsky I, Lamy A, Roberts RS, O'Brien B, Carroll S, et al. (2003). Double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of prophylactic metoprolol for reduction of hospital length of stay after heart surgery: the beta-Blocker Length Of Stay (BLOS) study. Am Heart J, 145: 226-232
185. Coleman CI, Perkerson KA, Gillespie EL, Kluger J, Gallagher R, Horowitz S, et al. (2004). Impact of prophylactic post-operative beta-blockade on post-cardiothoracic surgery length of stay and atrial fibrillation. Ann Pharmacother, 38: 2012-2016
186. Ferguson TB Jr, Coombs LP, Peterson ED (2002). Preoperative beta-blocker use and mortality and morbidity following CABG surgery in North America. JAMA, 287: 2221-2227
187. Shenasa M, Kus T, Fromer M, LeBlanc RA, Dubuc M, Nadeau R (1988). Effect of intravenous and oral calcium antagonists (diltiazem and verapamil) on sustenance of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol, 62: 403-407
188. Lally JA, Gnall EM, Seltzer J, Kowey PR (2007). Non-antiarrhythmic drugs in atrial fibrillation: a review of non-antiarrhythmic agents in prevention of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 18: 1222-1228
189. Sticherling C, Behrens S, Kamke W, Stahn A, Zabel M (2005). Comparison of acute and long-term effects of single-dose amiodarone and verapamil for the treatment of immediate recurrences of atrial fibrillation after transthoracic cardioversion. Europace, 7: 546-553
190. Waldo AL, Camm AJ, DeRuyter H, Friedman PL, MacNeil DJ, Pauls JF, et al. (1996). Effect of d-sotalol on mortality in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after recent and remote myocardial infarction. The SWORD Investigators. Survival with Oral d-Sotalol. Lancet, 348: 7-12
191. Patel A, Dunning J (2005). Is sotalol more effective than standard beta-blockers for prophylaxis of atrial fibrillation during cardiac surgery? Interactive Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, 4: 147-150
192. McClellan KJ, Markham A (1999). Dofetilide: a review of its use in atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. Drugs, 58:1043-1059
193. Singh S, Zoble RG, Yellen L, Brodsky MA, Feld GK, Berk M, et al. (2000). Efficacy and safety of oral dofetilide in converting to and maintaining sinus rhythm in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter: the symptomatic atrial fibrillation investigative research on dofetilide (SAFIRE-D) study. Circulation, 102: 2385-90
194. Falk RH, DeCara JM (2000). Dofetilide: A new pure class III antiarrhythmic agent. Am Heart J, 140: 697-706
195. Banchs JE, Wolbrette DL, Samii SM, Penny-Peterson ED, Patel PP, Young SK, et al. (2008). Efficacy and safety of dofetilide in patients with atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. J Interv Card Electrophysiol, 23: 111-115
196. Torp-Pedersen C, Moller M, Bloch-Thomsen PE, Kober L, Sandoe E, Egstrup K, et al. (1999). Dofetilide in patients with congestive heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction. Danish Investigations of Arrhythmia and Mortality on Dofetilide Study Group. N Engl J Med, 341: 857-865
197. Lauer MR (2001). Dofetilide: Is the treatment worse than the disease? J Am Coll Cardiol, 37: 1106-1110
198. Van Erven L, Schalij MJ (2010). Amiodarone: an effective antiarrhythmic drug with unusual side effects. Heart, 96: 1593-1600
199. Bagshaw SM, Galbraith D, Mitchell B, Sauve R, Exner DV, Ghali WA (2006). Prophylactic amiodarone for prevention of atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis. Ann Thorac Surg, 82: 1927-1937
200. Danzi S, Klein I (2015). Amiodarone-induced thyroid dysfunction. J Intensive Care Med, 30: 179-195
201. Blackshear JL, Stafford RE (2003). AFFIRM and RACE trials: implications for the management of atrial fibrillation. Card Electrophysiol Rev, 7: 366-369
202. Carlsson J, Miketic S, Windeler J, Cuneo A, Haun S, Micus S, et al. (2003). Randomized trial of rate-control versus rhythm-control in persistent atrial fibrillation: the Strategies of Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation (STAF) study. J Am Coll Cardiol, 41: 1690-1696
203. Heist EK, Mansour M, Raskin JN (2011). Rate control in atrial fibrillation: targets, methods, resynchronization considerations. Circulation, 124: 2746-2755
204. Wyse DG, Waldo AL, DiMarco JP, Domanski MJ, Rosenberg Y, Schron EB, et al. (2002). A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Eng J Med, 347: 1825-1833
205. Ad N (2007). The Cox-Maze procedure: history, results, and predictors for failure. J Interv Card Electrophysiol, 20: 65-71
206. Harling L, Athanasiou T, Ashrafian H, Nowell J, Kourliouros A (2011). Strategies in the surgical management of atrial fibrillation. Cardiol Res Pract, 2011: 439312
207. Cox JL, Schuessler RB, Lappas DG, Boineau JP (1996). An 8+-year clinical experience with surgery for atrial fibrillation. Ann Surg, 224: 267-273
208. McCarthy PM, Gillinov AM, Castle L, Chung M, Cosgrove D (2000). The Cox-Maze procedure: the Cleveland Clinic experience. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 12: 25-29
209. Schaff HV, Dearani JA, Daly RC, Orszulak TA, Danielson GK (2000). Cox-Maze procedure for atrial fibrillation: Mayo Clinic experience. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 12: 30-37
210. Cox JL, Boineau JP, Schuessler RB, Jaquiss RD, Lappas DG (1995). Modifications of the maze procedure for atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation. I. Rationale and surgical results. J Thorac Cardiovas Surg, 110: 473-484
211. Cox JL, Jaquiss RD, Schuessler RB, Boineau JP (1995). Modifications of the maze procedure for atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation. II. Surgical technique of the maze III procedure. J Thorac Cardiovas Surg, 110: 485-495
212. Ballaux PK, Geuzebroek GS, van Hemmel NM, Kelder JC, Dossche KM Ernst JM, et al. (2006). Freedom from atrial arrhythmias after classic maze III surgery: a 10-year experience. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 132: 1433-1440
213. Prasad SM, Maniar HS, Camillo CJ, Schuessler RB, Boineau JP, Sundt TM, et al. (2003). The Cox maze III procedure for atrial fibrillation: long-term efficacy in patients undergoing lone versus concomitant procedures. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 126: 1822-1828
214. Damiano RJ, Gaynor SL, Bailey M, Prasad S, Cox JL, Boineau JP, et al. (2003). The long-term outcome of patients with coronary disease and atrial fibrillation undergoing the Cox maze procedure. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 126: 2016-2021
215. Altman RK, Proietti R, Barrrett CD, Paoletti Perini A, Santangeli P, Danik SB, et al. (2014). Management of refractory atrial fibrillation post-surgical ablation. Ann Cardiothorac Surg, 3: 91-97
216. Schmidt C, Kisselback J, Schweizer PA, Katus HA, Thomas D (2011). The pathology and treatment of cardiac arrhythmias: focus on atrial fibrillation. Vasc Health Risk Manag, 7: 193-202
217. Maroto LC, Carnero M, Silva JA, Cobiella J, Perez-Castellano N, Reguillo F, et al. (2011). Early recurrence is a predictor of late failure in surgical ablation of atrial fibrillation. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg, 12: 681-686
218. Gaynor SL, Schuessler RB, Bailey MS, Ishii Y, Boineau JP, Gleva MJ, et al. (2005). Surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation: predictors of late recurrence. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 129: 104-111
219. Kawaguchi AT, Kosakai YK, Isobe F, Sasako Y, Eishi K, Nakano K, et al. (1996). Factors affecting rhythm after the maze procedure for atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 94 Suppl: II139-142
220. Ishii Y, Gleva MJ, Gamache C, Schuessler RB, Boineau JP, Bailey MS, et al. (2004). Atrial tachyarrhythmias after the maze procedure: incidence and prognosis. Circulation, 110 Suppl: II164-168
221. Golovchiner G, Mazur A, Kogan A, Strasberg B, Shapira Y, Fridman M, et al. (2005). Atrial flutter after surgical radiofrequency ablation of the left atrium for atrial fibrillation. Ann Thorac Surg, 79: 108-112
222. Kik C, Bogers AJ (2011). Maze procedures for atrial fibrillation, from history to practice. Cardiol Res, 2: 201-207
223. Lonnerholm S, Blomstrom P, Nilsson L, Blostrom-Lundqvist C (2008). Long-term effects of the maze procedure on atrial size and mechanical function. Ann Thor Surg, 85: 916-920
224. Stulak JM, Sundt III TM, Dearani JA, Daly RC, Orsulak TA, Schaff HV (2007). Ten-year experience with the Cox-maze procedure for atrial fibrillation: how do we define success? Ann Thor Surg, 83: 1319-1325
225. McCarthy PM, Castle LW, Maloney JD, Trohman RG, Simmons TW, White RD, et al. (1993). Initial experience with the maze procedure for atrial fibrillation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 105: 1077-1087
226. Calkins H, Reynolds MR, Spector P, Sondhi M, Xu Y, Martin A, et al. (2009). Treatment of atrial fibrillation with antiarrhythmic drugs or radiofrequency ablation: two systematic literature reviews and meta-analyses. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 2: 349-361
227. Wynn GJ, Das M, Bonnett LJ, Panikker S, Wong T, Gupta D (2014). Efficacy of catheter ablation for persistent atrial fibrillation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence from randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 7: 841-852
228. Joseph JP, Rajappan K (2012). Radiofrequency ablation of cardiac arrhythmias: past, present and future. QJM, 105: 303-314
229. Hanley C, Esberg D, Kowey PR (2014). Ablation versus drugs: what is the best first-line therapy for paroxysmal atrial fibrillation? Antiarrhythmic drugs are outmoded and catheter ablation should be the first-line options for all patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: con. Circ Arrh Electrophysiol, 7: 747-754
230. Cappato R, Calkins H, Chen SA, Davies W, Iesaka Y, Kalman J, et al. (2005). Worldwide survey on the methods, efficacy, and safety of catheter ablation for human atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 111: 1100-1105
231. Shah RU, Freeman JV, Shilane D, Wang PJ, Go AS, Hlatky MA (2012). Procedural complications, rehospitalizations, and repeat procedures after catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol, 59: 143-149
232. Sciarra L, Rebecchi M, De Ruvo E, De Luca L, Zuccaro LM, Fagagnini A, et al. (2010). How many atrial fibrillation candidates have an underlying supraventricular tachycardia previously unknown? Efficacy of isolated triggering arrhythmia ablation. Europace, 12: 1707-1712
233. Castrejon-Castrejon S, Ortega M, Perez-Silva A, Doiny D, Estrada A, Filgueiras D, et al. (2011). Organized atrial tachycardias after atrial fibrillation ablation. Cardiol Res Pract, 2011: 957538
234. Chugh A, Oral H, Lemola K, Hall B, Cheung P, Good E, et al. (2005). Prevalence, mechanism, and clinical significance of macroreentrant atrial tachycardia during and following left atrial ablation for atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 2: 464-471
235. Deisenhofer I, Estner H, Zrenner B, Schreieck J, Weyerbrock S, Hessling G, et al. (2006). Left atrial tachycardia after circumferential pulmonary vein ablation for atrial fibrillation: incidence, electrophysiological characteristics, and results of radiofrequency ablation. Europace, 8: 573-582
236. Lee G, Sanders P, Kalman JM (2012). Catheter ablation of atrial arrhythmias: state of the art. Lancet, 380: 1509-1519
237. Brooks AG, Stiles MK, Laborderie J, Lau DH, Kuklik P, Shipp NJ, et al. (2010). Outcomes of long-standing persistent atrial fibrillation ablation: a systematic review. Heart Rhythm, 7: 835-846
238. Hoyer FF, Lickfett LM, Mittmann-Braun E, Ruland C, Kreuz J, Pabst S, et al. (2010). High prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea in patients with resistant paroxysmal atrial fibrillation after pulmonary vein isolation. J Interv Card Electrophysiol, 29: 37-41
239. Monahan D, Redline S. (2011). Role of obstructive sleep apnea in cardiovascular disease. Curr Opin Cardiol, 26: 541-547
240. Santangeli P, Di Biase L, Natale A (2014). Ablation versus drugs: what is the best first-line therapy for paroxysmal atrial fibrillation? Antiarrhythmic drugs are outmoded and catheter ablation should be the first-line options for all patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: Pro. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 7: 739-746
241. Olsson A, Darpo B, Bergfeldt L, Rosenqvist M (1999). Frequency and long term follow up of valvar insufficiency caused by retrograde aortic radiofrequency catheter ablation procedures. Heart, 81: 292-296
242. Ren JF, Marchlinski FE, Callans DJ (2004). Left atrial thrombus associated with ablation for atrial fibrillation: identification with intracardaic echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol, 43: 1861-1867
243. Chen SA, Chiang CE, Tai CT, Cheng CC, Chiou CW, Lee SH, et al. (1996). Complications of diagnostic electrophysiologic studies and radiofrequency catheter ablation in patients with tachyarrhythmias: an eight-year survey of 3,966 consecutive procedures in tertiary referral center. Am J Cardiol, 77: 41-46
244. Robbins IM, Colvin EV, Doyle TP, Kemp WE, Loyd JD, McMahon WS, et al. (1998). Pulmonary vein stenosis after catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 98: 1769-1775
245. Li S, Scherlag BJ, Yu L, Sheng X, Zhang Y, Ali R, et al. (2009). Low-level vagosympathetic stimulation: a paradox and potential new modality for the treatment of focal atrial fibrillation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 2: 645-651
246. Katritsis DG, Giazitzoglou E, Zografos T, Pokushalov E, Po SS, Camm AJ (2011). Rapid pulmonary vein isolation combined with autonomic ganglia modification: a randomized study. Heart Rhythm, 8: 672-678
247. Lemery R, Birnie D, Tang AS, Green M, Gollob M (2006). Feasibility study of endocardial mapping of ganglionated plexuses during catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 3: 387-396
248. Scherlag BJ, Nakagawa H, Jackman WM, Yamanashi WS, Patterson E, Po S, et al. (2005). Electrical stimulation to identify neural elements on the heart: their role in atrial fibrillation. J Interv Card Electrophysiol, 13 Suppl: 37-42
249. Malpas SC (2010). Sympathetic nervous system overactivity and its role in the development of cardiovascular disease. Physiol Rev, 90: 513-557
250. Hou Y, Hu J, Po SS, Wang H, Zhang L, Zhang F, et al. (2013). Catheter-based renal sympathetic denervation significantly inhibits atrial fibrillation induced by electrical stimulation of the left stellate ganglion and rapid atrial pacing. Plos One, 8: e78218
251. Linz D, Mahfoud F, Schotten U, Ukena C, Neuberger HR, Wirth K, et al. (2012). Renal sympathetic denervation suppresses postapneic blood pressure rises and atrial fibrillation in a model for sleep apnea. Hypertension, 60: 172-178
252. Pokushalov E, Romanov A, Corbucci G, Artyomenko S, Baranova V, Turov A, et al. (2012). A randomized comparison of pulmonary vein isolation with versus without concomitant renal artery denervation in patients with refractory symptomatic atrial fibrillation and resistant hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol, 60: 1163-1170
253. Kosiuk J, Pokushalov E, Hilbert S, Hindricks G, Bollmann A, Steinberg JS (2014). The role of renal sympathetic denervation in atrial fibrillation. J Atr Fibrillation, 6: 91-94
254. Pathak RK, Middeldorp ME, Meredith M, Mehta AB, Mahajan R, Wong CX, et al. (2015). Long-term effect of goal-directed weight management in an atrial fibrillation cohort: a long-term follow-up study (LEGACY). J Am Coll Cardiol, 65: 2159-2169
255. Govindarajan G, Alpert MA, Tejwani L (2008). Endocrine and metabolic effects of fat: cardiovascular implications. Am J Med, 121: 366-370
256. Fantuzzi G (2005). Adipose tissue, adipokines, and inflammation. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 115: 911-919
257. Rocha VZ, Libby P (2009). Obesity, inflammation, and atherosclerosis. Nat Rev Cardiol, 6: 399-409
258. Romeo GR, Lee J, Shoelson SE (2012). Metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and roles of inflammation-mechanisms and therapeutic targets. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 32: 1771-1776
259. Grassi G, Seravalle G, Cattaneo BM, Bolla FB, Lanfranchi A, Colombo M, et al. (1995). Sympathetic activation in obese normotensive subjects. Hypertension, 25: 560-563
260. Grassi G, Quarti Trevano, Seravalle G, Dell'Oro R (2007). Cardiovascular risk and adrenergic overdrive in the metabolic syndrome. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 17: 473-481
261. Grassi G, Seravalle G, Colombo M, Bolla G, Cattaneo BM, Cavagnini F, et al. (1998). Body weight reduction, sympathetic nerve traffic, and arterial baroreflex in obese normotensive humans. Circulation, 97: 2037-2042
262. DiBona GF (2004). The sympathetic nervous system and hypertension: recent developments. Hypertension, 43: 147-150
263. Tvarijonaviciute A, Tecles F, Martinez-Subiela S, Ceron JJ (2012). Effect of weight loss on inflammatory biomarkers in obese dogs. The Veterinary Journal, 193: 570-572
264. Cho ZH, Hwang SC, Wong EK, Son YD, Kang CK, Park TS, et al. (2006). Neural substrates, experimental evidences and functional hypothesis of acupuncture mechanisms. Acta Neurol Scand, 113: 370-377
265. Wang JD, Kuo TB, Yang CC (2002). An alternative method to enhance vagal activities and suppress sympathetic activities in humans. Auton Neurosci, 100: 90-95
266. Lombardi F, Belletti S, Battezzati PM, Lomuscio A (2012). Acupuncture for paroxysmal and persistent atrial fibrillation: an effective non-pharmacological tool? World J Cardiol, 4: 60-65
267. Lomuscio A, Belletti S, Battezzati P, Lombardi F (2011). Efficacy of acupuncture in preventing atrial fibrillation recurrences after electrical cardioversion. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 22: 241-247
268. Jonkman FA, Jonkman-Buidin ML (2013). Integrated approach to treatment-resistant atrial fibrillation: additional value of acupuncture. Acupunct Med, 31: 327-330
269. Lakkireddy D, Atkins D, Pillarisetti J, Ryschon K, Bommana S, Drisko J, et al. (2013). Effect of yoga on arrhythmia burden, anxiety, depression, and quality of life in paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: the YOGA My Heart Study. J Am Coll Cardiol, 61: 1177-1182
270. Kim Y-D, Heo I, Shin B-C, Crawford C, Kang HW, Lim JH (2013). Acupuncture for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials and prospective clinical trials. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 2013: 615857
271. Streeter CC, Gerbarg PL, Saper RB, Ciraulo DA, Brown RP (2012). Effects of yoga on the autonomic nervous system, gamma-aminobutyric-acid, and allostasis in epilepsy, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Med Hypotheses, 78: 571-579
272. van der Kolk BA, Stone L, West J, Rhodes A, Emerson D, Suvak M, et al. (2014). Yoga as an adjunctive treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry, 75: e559-565
273. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Bennett JM, Andridge R, Peng J, Shapiro CL, Malarkey WB, et al. (2014). Yoga's impact on inflammation, mood, and fatigue in breast cancer survivors: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Oncol, 32: 1040-1049
274. Vijayaraghava A, Doreswamy V, Narasipur OS, Kunnavil R, Srinivasamurthy N (2015). Effect of yoga practice on levels of inflammatory markers after moderate and strenuous exercise. J Clin Diagn Res, 9: CC08-CC12
275. Kavoussi B, Ross BE (2007). The neuroimmune basis of anti-inflammatory acupuncture. Integr Cancer Ther, 6: 251-257