Atrial fibrillation: Mechanistic insights and treatment options

European Journal of Internal Medicine

Volumn 20, Issue 7, 2009, Pages 672-681

  Mathew, Sunil T ^a   Patel, Jigar ^a   Joseph, Satheesh ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b Brookhaven Heart   (United States)

Author keywords

Arrhythmia; Arrhythmia mechanism; Arrhythmia treatment; Atrial fibrillation

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; AMIODARONE; ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ATORVASTATIN; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; DEXAMETHASONE; DIGOXIN; DILTIAZEM; DISOPYRAMIDE; DOFETILIDE; FLECAINIDE; HYDROCORTISONE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; MORACIZINE; NIP 142; PROCAINAMIDE; PROPAFENONE; QUINIDINE; SOTALOL; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; WARFARIN;

ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY; ARRHYTHMOGENESIS; ARTIFICIAL HEART PACEMAKER; AUTONOMIC INNERVATION; CARDIOPULMONARY BYPASS; CARDIOVERSION; CATHETER ABLATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; ENDOCRINE FUNCTION; HEART ATRIUM CONDUCTION; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART ATRIUM FUNCTION; HEART ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; HEART PACING; HEART SUPRAVENTRICULAR ARRHYTHMIA; HEART SURGERY; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOGENESIS; PLEIOTROPY; PULMONARY VEIN; RADIOFREQUENCY ABLATION; REVIEW; SCORING SYSTEM; SINUS RHYTHM; THROMBOEMBOLISM;

ANTI-ARRHYTHMIA AGENTS; ATRIAL FIBRILLATION; HEART; HEART ATRIA; HUMANS;

EID: 70349948859     PISSN: 09536205     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2009.07.011     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Go A.S., Hylek E.M., Phillips K.A., Chang Y., Henault L.E., Selby J.V., et al. Prevalence of diagnosed atrial fibrillation in adults: national implications for rhythm management and stroke prevention: the AnTicoagulation and Risk Factors in Atrial Fibrillation (ATRIA) Study. JAMA 285 (2001) 2370-2375
2. Chen L.Y., and Shen W.K. Epidemiology of atrial fibrillation: a current perspective. Heart Rhythm 4 (2007) S1-S6
3. Miyasaka Y., Barnes M.E., Gersh B.J., Cha S.S., Bailey K.R., Abhayaratna W.P., et al. Secular trends in incidence of atrial fibrillation in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1980 to 2000, and implications on the projections for future prevalence. Circulation 114 (2006) 119-125
4. Wang T.J., Parise H., Levy D., D'Agostino Sr. R.B., Wolf P.A., Vasan R.S., et al. Obesity and the risk of new-onset atrial fibrillation. JAMA 292 (2004) 2471-2477
5. Gami A.S., Pressman G., Caples S.M., Kanagala R., Gard J.J., Davison D.E., et al. Association of atrial fibrillation and obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 110 (2004) 364-367
6. Kanagala R., Murali N.S., Friedman P.A., Ammash N.M., Gersh B.J., Ballman K.V., et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and the recurrence of atrial fibrillation. Circulation 107 (2003) 2589-2594
7. Eaker E.D., Sullivan L.M., Kelly-Hayes M., D'Agostino Sr. R.B., and Benjamin E.J. Anger and hostility predict the development of atrial fibrillation in men in the Framingham Offspring Study. Circulation 109 (2004) 1267-1271
8. Denison H., Jern S., Jagenburg R., Wendestam C., and Wallerstedt S. Influence of increased adrenergic activity and magnesium depletion on cardiac rhythm in alcohol withdrawal. Br Heart J 72 (1994) 554-560
9. Maki T., Toivonen L., Koskinen P., Naveri H., Harkonen M., and Leinonen H. Effect of ethanol drinking, hangover, and exercise on adrenergic activity and heart rate variability in patients with a history of alcohol-induced atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol 82 (1998) 317-322
10. Mukamal K.J., Tolstrup J.S., Friberg J., Jensen G., and Gronbaek M. Alcohol consumption and risk of atrial fibrillation in men and women: the Copenhagen City Heart Study. Circulation 112 (2005) 1736-1742
11. Moe G.K., and Abildskov J.A. Atrial fibrillation as a self-sustaining arrhythmia independent of focal discharge. Am Heart J 58 (1959) 59-70
12. Waldo A.L. Mechanisms of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 14 (2003) S267-S274
13. Moe G.K., Rheinboldt W.C., and Abildskov J.A. A computer model of atrial fibrillation. Am Heart J 67 (1964) 200-220
14. Moe G.K. A conceptual model of atrial fibrillation. J Electrocardiol 1 (1968) 145-146
15. Allessie M., Bonke F., and Hollen J. Experimental evaluation of Moe's multiple wavelet hypothesis of atrial fibrillation. In: Zipes D.P.J.J. (Ed). Cardiovascular electrophysiology and arrhythmias (1985), Grune & Stratton, Orlando 265-276
16. Allessie M., Smeets J., Bonke F., and Hollen. Total mapping of atrial excitation during acetylcholine-induced atrial flutter and fibrillation in the isolated canine heart (1982), AB Hassle, Molndal
17. Haissaguerre M., Jais P., Shah D.C., Takahashi A., Hocini M., Quiniou G., et al. Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating in the pulmonary veins. N Engl J Med 339 (1998) 659-666
18. Mansour M., Mandapati R., Berenfeld O., Chen J., Samie F.H., and Jalife J. Left-to-right gradient of atrial frequencies during acute atrial fibrillation in the isolated sheep heart. Circulation 103 (2001) 2631-2636
19. Mandapati R., Skanes A., Chen J., Berenfeld O., and Jalife J. Stable microreentrant sources as a mechanism of atrial fibrillation in the isolated sheep heart. Circulation 101 (2000) 194-199
20. Fynn S.P., and Kalman J.M. Pulmonary veins: anatomy, electrophysiology, tachycardia, and fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 27 (2004) 1547-1559
21. Jalife J., Berenfeld O., and Mansour M. Mother rotors and fibrillatory conduction: a mechanism of atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc Res 54 (2002) 204-216
22. Wyse D.G., and Gersh B.J. Atrial fibrillation: a perspective: thinking inside and outside the box. Circulation 109 (2004) 3089-3095
23. Cosio F.G., and Castillo E. Left atrial anatomic remodeling in atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 18 (2007) 53-54
24. Wijffels M.C., Kirchhof C.J., Dorland R., and Allessie M.A. Atrial fibrillation begets atrial fibrillation. A study in awake chronically instrumented goats. Circulation 92 (1995) 1954-1968
25. Wijffels M.C., Kirchhof C.J., Dorland R., Power J., and Allessie M.A. Electrical remodeling due to atrial fibrillation in chronically instrumented conscious goats: roles of neurohumoral changes, ischemia, atrial stretch, and high rate of electrical activation. Circulation 96 (1997) 3710-3720
26. Sun H., Chartier D., Leblanc N., and Nattel S. Intracellular calcium changes and tachycardia-induced contractile dysfunction in canine atrial myocytes. Cardiovasc Res 49 (2001) 751-761
27. Nattel S., and Opie L.H. Controversies in atrial fibrillation. Lancet 367 (2006) 262-272
28. Nattel S. New ideas about atrial fibrillation 50 years on. Nature 415 (2002) 219-226
29. Yue L., Feng J., Gaspo R., Li G.R., Wang Z., and Nattel S. Ionic remodeling underlying action potential changes in a canine model of atrial fibrillation. Circ Res 81 (1997) 512-525
30. Allessie M., Ausma J., and Schotten U. Electrical, contractile and structural remodeling during atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc Res 54 (2002) 230-246
31. Falk R.H. Atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 344 (2001) 1067-1078
32. Falk R.H. Etiology and complications of atrial fibrillation: insights from pathology studies. Am J Cardiol 82 (1998) 10N-17N
33. Aviles R.J., Martin D.O., Apperson-Hansen C., Houghtaling P.L., Rautaharju P., Kronmal R.A., et al. Inflammation as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation. Circulation 108 (2003) 3006-3010
34. Frustaci A., Chimenti C., Bellocci F., Morgante E., Russo M.A., and Maseri A. Histological substrate of atrial biopsies in patients with lone atrial fibrillation. Circulation 96 (1997) 1180-1184
35. Nakamura Y., Nakamura K., Fukushima-Kusano K., Ohta K., Matsubara H., Hamuro T., et al. Tissue factor expression in atrial endothelia associated with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: possible involvement in intracardiac thrombogenesis. Thromb Res 111 (2003) 137-142
36. Kumagai K., Nakashima H., and Saku K. The HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor atorvastatin prevents atrial fibrillation by inhibiting inflammation in a canine sterile pericarditis model. Cardiovasc Res 62 (2004) 105-111
37. Dernellis J., and Panaretou M. C-reactive protein and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: evidence of the implication of an inflammatory process in paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Acta Cardiol 56 (2001) 375-380
38. Chung M.K., Martin D.O., Sprecher D., Wazni O., Kanderian A., Carnes C.A., et al. C-reactive protein elevation in patients with atrial arrhythmias: inflammatory mechanisms and persistence of atrial fibrillation. Circulation 104 (2001) 2886-2891
39. Yared J.P., Starr N.J., Torres F.K., Bashour C.A., Bourdakos G., Piedmonte M., et al. Effects of single dose, postinduction dexamethasone on recovery after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 69 (2000) 1420-1424
40. Halonen J., Halonen P., Jarvinen O., Taskinen P., Auvinen T., Tarkka M., et al. Corticosteroids for the prevention of atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 297 (2007) 1562-1567
41. Engelmann M.D., and Svendsen J.H. Inflammation in the genesis and perpetuation of atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J 26 (2005) 2083-2092
42. Korantzopoulos P., Kolettis T., Siogas K., and Goudevenos J. Atrial fibrillation and electrical remodeling: the potential role of inflammation and oxidative stress. Med Sci Monit 9 (2003) RA225-9
43. Benjamin E.J., Levy D., Vaziri S.M., D'Agostino R.B., Belanger A.J., and Wolf P.A. Independent risk factors for atrial fibrillation in a population-based cohort. The Framingham Heart Study. JAMA 271 (1994) 840-844
44. Kato T., Yamashita T., Sekiguchi A., Sagara K., Takamura M., Takata S., et al. What are arrhythmogenic substrates in diabetic rat atria?. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 17 (2006) 890-894
45. Patlolla V., Alsheikh-Ali A.A., and Al-Ahmad A.M. The renin-angiotensin system: a therapeutic target in atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 29 (2006) 1006-1012
46. Kumagai K., Nakashima H., Urata H., Gondo N., Arakawa K., and Saku K. Effects of angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonist on electrical and structural remodeling in atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 41 (2003) 2197-2204
47. Pedersen O.D., Bagger H., Kober L., and Torp-Pedersen C. Trandolapril reduces the incidence of atrial fibrillation after acute myocardial infarction in patients with left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 100 (1999) 376-380
48. Vermes E., Tardif J.C., Bourassa M.G., Racine N., Levesque S., White M., et al. Enalapril decreases the incidence of atrial fibrillation in patients with left ventricular dysfunction: insight from the Studies Of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD) trials. Circulation 107 (2003) 2926-2931
49. Hobbs W.J., Van Gelder I.C., Fitzpatrick A.P., Crijns H.J., and Garratt C.J. The role of atrial electrical remodeling in the progression of focal atrial ectopy to persistent atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 10 (1999) 866-870
50. Wu T.J., Ong J.J., Chang C.M., Doshi R.N., Yashima M., Huang H.L., et al. Pulmonary veins and ligament of Marshall as sources of rapid activations in a canine model of sustained atrial fibrillation. Circulation 103 (2001) 1157-1163
51. Kumagai K., Yasuda T., Tojo H., Noguchi H., Matsumoto N., Nakashima H., et al. Role of rapid focal activation in the maintenance of atrial fibrillation originating from the pulmonary veins. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 23 (2000) 1823-1827
52. Sueda T., Imai K., Ishii O., Orihashi K., Watari M., and Okada K. Efficacy of pulmonary vein isolation for the elimination of chronic atrial fibrillation in cardiac valvular surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 71 (2001) 1189-1193
53. Nathan H., and Gloobe H. Myocardial atrio-venous junctions and extensions (sleeves) over the pulmonary and caval veins. Anatomical observations in various mammals. Thorax 25 (1970) 317-324
54. Saito T., Waki K., and Becker A.E. Left atrial myocardial extension onto pulmonary veins in humans: anatomic observations relevant for atrial arrhythmias. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 11 (2000) 888-894
55. Perez-Lugones A., McMahon J.T., Ratliff N.B., Saliba W.I., Schweikert R.A., Marrouche N.F., et al. Evidence of specialized conduction cells in human pulmonary veins of patients with atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 14 (2003) 803-809
56. Ho S.Y., Cabrera J.A., Tran V.H., Farre J., Anderson R.H., and Sanchez-Quintana D. Architecture of the pulmonary veins: relevance to radiofrequency ablation. Heart 86 (2001) 265-270
57. Jalife J. Rotors and spiral waves in atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 14 (2003) 776-780
58. Wu R.C., Berger R., and Calkins H. Catheter ablation of atrial flutter and macroreentrant atrial tachycardia. Curr Opin Cardiol 17 (2002) 58-64
59. Randall W. Cardiac electrophysiology: from cell to bedside. In: Zipes D.P.J.J. (Ed). Nervous control of the heart: anatomy and pathophysiology (1990), WB Saunders, Co, Philadelphia 291-299
60. Coumel P. Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: a disorder of autonomic tone?. Eur Heart J 15 Suppl A (1994) 9-16
61. Coumel P. Autonomic influences in atrial tachyarrhythmias. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 7 (1996) 999-1007
62. Coumel P., Attuel P., Lavallee J., Flammang D., Leclercq J.F., and Slama R. The atrial arrhythmia syndrome of vagal origin. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 71 (1978) 645-656
63. Chen Y.J., Chen S.A., Chang M.S., and Lin C.I. Arrhythmogenic activity of cardiac muscle in pulmonary veins of the dog: implication for the genesis of atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc Res 48 (2000) 265-273
64. Singh J.P., Larson M.G., Levy D., Evans J.C., Tsuji H., and Benjamin E.J. Is baseline autonomic tone associated with new onset atrial fibrillation?: Insights from the Framingham heart study. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol 9 (2004) 215-220
65. Tomita T., Takei M., Saikawa Y., Hanaoka T., Uchikawa S., Tsutsui H., et al. Role of autonomic tone in the initiation and termination of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in patients without structural heart disease. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 14 (2003) 559-564
66. Nagasawa H., Fujiki A., Fujikura N., Matsuda T., Yamashita T., and Inoue H. Effects of a novel class III antiarrhythmic agent, NIP-142, on canine atrial fibrillation and flutter. Circ J 66 (2002) 185-191
67. Coumel P. Atrial fibrillation: one more sporting inconvenience?. Eur Heart J 23 (2002) 431-433
68. Nattel S. Therapeutic implications of atrial fibrillation mechanisms: can mechanistic insights be used to improve AF management?. Cardiovasc Res 54 (2002) 347-360
69. Van Gelder I.C., Hagens V.E., Bosker H.A., Kingma J.H., Kamp O., Kingma T., et al. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with recurrent persistent atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 347 (2002) 1834-1840
70. Wyse D.G., Waldo A.L., DiMarco J.P., Domanski M.J., Rosenberg Y., Schron E.B., et al. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 347 (2002) 1825-1833
71. Hohnloser S.H., Kuck K.H., and Lilienthal J. Rhythm or rate control in atrial fibrillation-Pharmacological Intervention in Atrial Fibrillation (PIAF): a randomised trial. Lancet 356 (2000) 1789-1794
72. Carlsson J., Miketic S., Windeler J., Cuneo A., Haun S., Micus S., et al. Randomized trial of rate-control versus rhythm control in persistent atrial fibrillation: the Strategies of Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation (STAF) study. J Am Coll Cardiol 41 (2003) 1690-1696
73. Opolski G., Torbicki A., Kosior D.A., Szulc M., Wozakowska-Kaplon B., Kolodziej P., et al. Rate control vs rhythm control in patients with nonvalvular persistent atrial fibrillation: the results of the Polish How to Treat Chronic Atrial Fibrillation (HOT CAFE) Study. Chest 126 (2004) 476-486
74. Fuster V., Ryden L.E., Cannom D.S., Crijns H.J., Curtis A.B., Ellenbogen K.A., et al. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2001 Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation): developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation 114 (2006) e257-e354
75. Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:1449-1457.
76. Medi C., Hankey G.J., and Freedman S.B. Atrial fibrillation. Med J Aust 186 (2007) 197-202
77. Albers G.W. Antithrombotic therapy for prevention and treatment of ischemic stroke. J Thromb Thrombolysis 12 (2001) 19-22
78. Verma A., and Natale A. Should atrial fibrillation ablation be considered first-line therapy for some patients? Why atrial fibrillation ablation should be considered first-line therapy for some patients. Circulation 112 (2005) 1214-1222 discussion 1231
79. Corley S.D., Epstein A.E., DiMarco J.P., Domanski M.J., Geller N., Greene H.L., et al. Relationships between sinus rhythm, treatment, and survival in the Atrial Fibrillation Follow-Up Investigation of Rhythm Management (AFFIRM) Study. Circulation 109 (2004) 1509-1513
80. Falk R.H. Management of atrial fibrillation-radical reform or modest modification?. N Engl J Med 347 (2002) 1883-1884
81. Chung M.K. Atrial fibrillation: rate control is as good as rhythm control for some, but not all. Cleve Clin J Med 70 (2003) 567-573
82. Pappone C., Rosanio S., Augello G., Gallus G., Vicedomini G., Mazzone P., et al. Mortality, morbidity, and quality of life after circumferential pulmonary vein ablation for atrial fibrillation: outcomes from a controlled nonrandomized long-term study. J Am Coll Cardiol 42 (2003) 185-197
83. Crijns H.J. Rate versus rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation: what the trials really say. Drugs 65 (2005) 1651-1667
84. Cooper H.A., Bloomfield D.A., Bush D.E., Katcher M.S., Rawlins M., Sacco J.D., et al. Relation between achieved heart rate and outcomes in patients with atrial fibrillation (from the Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management [AFFIRM] Study). Am J Cardiol 93 (2004) 1247-1253
85. Bjerregaard P., Bailey W.B., and Robinson S.E. Rate control in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol 93 (2004) 329-332
86. Kowey P.R. You only get so many heartbeats. J Am Coll Cardiol 43 (2004) 1209-1210
87. Van Gelder I.C., Rienstra M., Van den Berg M.P., and Van Veldhuisen D.J. Rate control in atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 44 (2004) 2417-2418 author reply 2418-9
88. Wood M.A., Brown-Mahoney C., Kay G.N., and Ellenbogen K.A. Clinical outcomes after ablation and pacing therapy for atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Circulation 101 (2000) 1138-1144
89. Dorian P., and Connors S.P. Pharmacological and nonpharmacological methods for rate control. Can J Cardiol 21 Suppl B (2005) 26B-30B
90. Levy T., Walker S., Mason M., Spurrell P., Rex S., Brant S., et al. Importance of rate control or rate regulation for improving exercise capacity and quality of life in patients with permanent atrial fibrillation and normal left ventricular function: a randomised controlled study. Heart 85 (2001) 171-178
91. Weerasooriya R., Davis M., Powell A., Szili-Torok T., Shah C., Whalley D., et al. The Australian Intervention Randomized Control of Rate in Atrial Fibrillation Trial (AIRCRAFT). J Am Coll Cardiol 41 (2003) 1697-1702
92. Ahmad K., and Dorian P. Rate control in atrial fibrillation: looking beyond the average heart rate. Curr Opin Cardiol 21 (2006) 88-93
93. Bailin S.J., Adler S., and Giudici M. Prevention of chronic atrial fibrillation by pacing in the region of Bachmann's bundle: results of a multicenter randomized trial. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 12 (2001) 912-917
94. Padeletti L., Porciani M.C., Michelucci A., Colella A., Costoli A., Ciapetti C., et al. Prevention of short term reversible chronic atrial fibrillation by permanent pacing at the triangle of Koch. J Interv Card Electrophysiol 4 (2000) 575-583
95. Hermida J.S., Kubala M., Lescure F.X., Delonca J., Clerc J., Otmani A., et al. Atrial septal pacing to prevent atrial fibrillation in patients with sinus node dysfunction: results of a randomized controlled study. Am Heart J 148 (2004) 312-317
96. Doshi R.N., Daoud E.G., Fellows C., Turk K., Duran A., Hamdan M.H., et al. Left ventricular-based cardiac stimulation post AV nodal ablation evaluation (the PAVE study). J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 16 (2005) 1160-1165
97. Cox J.L., Boineau J.P., Schuessler R.B., Jaquiss R.D., and Lappas D.G. Modification of the maze procedure for atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation. I. Rationale and surgical results. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 110 (1995) 473-484
98. Gillinov A.M., and McCarthy P.M. Advances in the surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation. Cardiol Clin 22 (2004) 147-157
99. Damiano Jr. R.J., Gaynor S.L., Bailey M., Prasad S., Cox J.L., Boineau J.P., et al. The long-term outcome of patients with coronary disease and atrial fibrillation undergoing the Cox maze procedure. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 126 (2003) 2016-2021
100. Chen S.A., Hsieh M.H., Tai C.T., Tsai C.F., Prakash V.S., Yu W.C., et al. Initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating from the pulmonary veins: electrophysiological characteristics, pharmacological responses, and effects of radiofrequency ablation. Circulation 100 (1999) 1879-1886
101. Haissaguerre M., Shah D.C., Jais P., Hocini M., Yamane T., Deisenhofer I., et al. Electrophysiological breakthroughs from the left atrium to the pulmonary veins. Circulation 102 (2000) 2463-2465
102. Haissaguerre M., Jais P., Shah D.C., Garrigue S., Takahashi A., Lavergne T., et al. Electrophysiological end point for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation initiated from multiple pulmonary venous foci. Circulation 101 (2000) 1409-1417
103. Pappone C., Rosanio S., Oreto G., Tocchi M., Gugliotta F., Vicedomini G., et al. Circumferential radiofrequency ablation of pulmonary vein ostia: a new anatomic approach for curing atrial fibrillation. Circulation 102 (2000) 2619-2628
104. Gerstenfeld E.P., Callans D., Dixit S., Lin D., Cooper J., Russo A.M., et al. Characteristics of patients undergoing atrial fibrillation ablation: trends over a seven-year period 1999-2005. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 18 (2007) 23-28
105. Haissaguerre M., Shah D.C., Jais P., Hocini M., Yamane T., Deisenhofer I., et al. Mapping-guided ablation of pulmonary veins to cure atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol 86 (2000) 9K-19K
106. Keane D., and Ruskin J. Pulmonary vein isolation for atrial fibrillation. Rev Cardiovasc Med 3 (2002) 167-175
107. Oral H., Knight B.P., Tada H., Ozaydin M., Chugh A., Hassan S., et al. Pulmonary vein isolation for paroxysmal and persistent atrial fibrillation. Circulation 105 (2002) 1077-1081
108. Morady F. Treatment of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation by pulmonary vein isolation. Circ J 67 (2003) 567-571
109. Pappone C., Oreto G., Rosanio S., Vicedomini G., Tocchi M., Gugliotta F., et al. Atrial electroanatomic remodeling after circumferential radiofrequency pulmonary vein ablation: efficacy of an anatomic approach in a large cohort of patients with atrial fibrillation. Circulation 104 (2001) 2539-2544
110. Schwartzman D., Parizhskaya M., and Devine W.A. Linear ablation using an irrigated electrode electrophysiologic and histologic lesion evolution comparison with ablation utilizing a non-irrigated electrode. J Interv Card Electrophysiol 5 (2001) 17-26
111. Ho S.Y., Sanchez-Quintana D., Cabrera J.A., and Anderson R.H. Anatomy of the left atrium: implications for radiofrequency ablation of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 10 (1999) 1525-1533
112. Seidl K., Schwacke H., Zahn R., Rameken M., Drogemuller A., and Senges J. Catheter ablation of chronic atrial fibrillation with noncontact mapping: are continuous linear lesions associated with ablation success?. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 26 (2003) 534-543
113. Ernst S., Ouyang F., Goya M., Lober F., Schneider C., Hoffmann-Riem M., et al. Total pulmonary vein occlusion as a consequence of catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation mimicking primary lung disease. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 14 (2003) 366-370
114. Keane D., Mansour M., and Singh J. Detection by intracardiac echocardiography of early formation of left atrial thrombus during pulmonary vein isolation. Europace 6 (2004) 109-110
115. Schwab J.O., Burkhardt D., Yang A., Schrickel J., Luderitz B., and Lewalter T. ECG signs mimicking acute inferior wall myocardial infarction are associated with elevated myocardial enzymes during isolation of pulmonary vein for focal atrial fibrillation. Europace 6 (2004) 111-115
116. Packer D.L., Asirvatham S., and Munger T.M. Progress in nonpharmacologic therapy of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 14 (2003) S296-S309
117. Patterson E., Po S.S., Scherlag B.J., and Lazzara R. Triggered firing in pulmonary veins initiated by in vitro autonomic nerve stimulation. Heart Rhythm 2 (2005) 624-631
118. Marron K., Wharton J., Sheppard M.N., Fagan D., Royston D., Kuhn D.M., et al. Distribution, morphology, and neurochemistry of endocardial and epicardial nerve terminal arborizations in the human heart. Circulation 92 (1995) 2343-2351
119. Kaye D.M., Vaddadi G., Gruskin S.L., Du X.J., and Esler M.D. Reduced myocardial nerve growth factor expression in human and experimental heart failure. Circ Res 86 (2000) E80-E84
120. Ginty D.D., and Segal R.A. Retrograde neurotrophin signaling: Trk-ing along the axon. Curr Opin Neurobiol 12 (2002) 268-274
121. Cao J.M., Fishbein M.C., Han J.B., Lai W.W., Lai A.C., Wu T.J., et al. Relationship between regional cardiac hyperinnervation and ventricular arrhythmia. Circulation 101 (2000) 1960-1969
122. Kim D.T., Luthringer D.J., Lai A.C., Suh G., Czer L., Chen L.S., et al. Sympathetic nerve sprouting after orthotopic heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 23 (2004) 1349-1358
123. Cao J.M., Chen L.S., KenKnight B.H., Ohara T., Lee M.H., Tsai J., et al. Nerve sprouting and sudden cardiac death. Circ Res 86 (2000) 816-821
124. Swissa M., Zhou S., Gonzalez-Gomez I., Chang C.M., Lai A.C., Cates A.W., et al. Long-term subthreshold electrical stimulation of the left stellate ganglion and a canine model of sudden cardiac death. J Am Coll Cardiol 43 (2004) 858-864
125. Lafuente-Lafuente C., Mouly S., Longas-Tejero M.A., Mahe I., and Bergmann J.F. Antiarrhythmic drugs for maintaining sinus rhythm after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 166 (2006) 719-728
126. Page R.L. Medical management of atrial fibrillation: future directions. Heart Rhythm 4 (2007) S91-S94
127. Olsson S.B. Atrial fibrillation-new aspects on mechanism and treatment. J Intern Med 239 (1996) 3-15