Diastolic dysfunction and risk of atrial fibrillation: A mechanistic appraisal

Circulation

Volumn 126, Issue 19, 2012, Pages 2353-2362

  Rosenberg, Michael A ^a   Manning, Warren J ^a,b  

^a BETH ISRAEL DEACONESS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; DIASTOLIC DYSFUNCTION; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART CYCLE; HEART LEFT ATRIUM; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE PRESSURE; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE VOLUME; HEART VENTRICLE COMPLIANCE; HUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULMONARY VEIN; RISK FACTOR;

ATRIAL FIBRILLATION; ATRIAL FUNCTION, LEFT; BIOMECHANICS; DIASTOLE; HEART FAILURE, DIASTOLIC; HUMANS; RISK FACTORS; VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION, LEFT;

EID: 84868588143     PISSN: 00097322     EISSN: 15244539     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.113233     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Majeed A, Moser K, Carroll K. Trends in the prevalence and management of atrial fibrillation in general practice in England and Wales, 1994-1998: analysis of data from the general practice research database. Heart. 2001;86:284-288. (Pubitemid 32800076)
2. Tokushima T, Reid CL, Gardin JM. Left ventricular diastolic function in the elderly. Am J Geriatr Cardiol. 2001;10:20-29. (Pubitemid 32923353)
3. Lewis JF, Maron BJ. Cardiovascular consequences of the aging process. Cardiovasc Clin. 1992;22:25-34.
4. Lee DS, Gona P, Vasan RS, Larson MG, Benjamin EJ, Wang TJ, Tu JV, Levy D. Relation of disease pathogenesis and risk factors to heart failure with preserved or reduced ejection fraction: Insights from the Framingham Heart Study of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Circulation. 2009;119:3070-3077.
5. Vasan RS, Levy D. The role of hypertension in the pathogenesis of heart failure. A clinical mechanistic overview. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156: 1789-1796.
6. Tedrow UB, Conen D, Ridker PM, Cook NR, Koplan BA, Manson JE, Buring JE, Albert CM. The long-and short-term impact of elevated body mass index on the risk of new atrial fibrillation the WHS (Women's Health Study). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:2319-2327.
7. Ammar KA, Redfield MM, Mahoney DW, Johnson M, Jacobsen SJ, Rodeheffer RJ. Central obesity: association with left ventricular dysfunction and mortality in the community. Am Heart J. 2008;156: 975-981.
8. Patil VC, Patil HV, Shah KB, Vasani JD, Shetty P. Diastolic dysfunction in asymptomatic type 2 diabetes mellitus with normal systolic function. J Cardiovasc Dis Res. 2011;2:213-222.
9. Kannel WB, Wolf PA, Benjamin EJ, Levy D. Prevalence, incidence, prognosis, and predisposing conditions for atrial fibrillation: population-based estimates. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82:2N-9N. (Pubitemid 28507114)
10. Zile MR, Brutsaert DL. New concepts in diastolic dysfunction and diastolic heart failure: Part I: diagnosis, prognosis, and measurements of diastolic function. Circulation. 2002;105:1387-1393. (Pubitemid 34260433)
11. Chen HH, Lainchbury JG, Senni M, Bailey KR, Redfield MM. Diastolic heart failure in the community: clinical profile, natural history, therapy, and impact of proposed diagnostic criteria. J Card Fail. 2002;8: 279-287. (Pubitemid 35253198)
12. Nagarakanti R, Ezekowitz M. Diastolic dysfunction and atrial fibrillation. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2008;22:111-118.
13. Grossman W. Function of the ventricles and myocardium. In: Grossman W, Baim DS, eds. Grossman's Cardiac Catheterization, Angiography, and Intervention. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000:379-390.
14. Krahn AD, Manfreda J, Tate RB, Mathewson FA, Cuddy TE. The natural history of atrial fibrillation: incidence, risk factors, and prognosis in the Manitoba Follow-up Study. Am J Med. 1995;98:476-484.
15. Klein A, Garcia M. Diastology: Clinical Approach to Diastolic Heart Failure. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2008.
16. Lester SJ, Tajik AJ, Nishimura RA, Oh JK, Khandheria BK, Seward JB. Unlocking the mysteries of diastolic function: deciphering the Rosetta Stone 10 years later. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:679-689. (Pubitemid 351221211)
17. Salerno M. Multi-modality imaging of diastolic function. J Nucl Cardiol. 2010;17:316-327.
18. Piotrowski G, Goch A, Wlazlowski R, Gawor Z, Goch JH. Non-invasive methods of atrial function evaluation in heart diseases. Med Sci Monit. 2000;6:827-839.
19. Rossi A, Zardini P, Marino P. Modulation of left atrial function by ventricular filling impairment. Heart Fail Rev. 2000;5:325-331. (Pubitemid 32000429)
20. Mori M, Kanzaki H, Amaki M, Ohara T, Hasegawa T, Takahama H, Hashimura K, Konno T, Hayashi K, Yamagishi M, Kitakaze M. Impact of reduced left atrial functions on diagnosis of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: results from analysis of time-left atrial volume curve determined by two-dimensional speckle tracking. J Cardiol. 2011;57:89-94.
21. Weiss J, Frederiksen J, Weisfeldt M. Hemodynamic determinants of the time-course of fall in canine left ventricular pressure. J Clin Invest. 1976;58:751-760.
22. Raff GL, Glantz SA. Volume loading slows left ventricular isovolumic relaxation rate. Evidence of load-dependent relaxation in the intact dog heart. Circ Res. 1981;48:813-824. (Pubitemid 11126069)
23. Kass DA, Wolff MR, Ting CT, Liu CP, Chang MS, Lawrence W, Maughan WL. Diastolic compliance of hypertrophied ventricle is not acutely altered by pharmacologic agents influencing active processes. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:466-473. (Pubitemid 23310107)
24. Van Dam I, Fast J, de Boo T, Hopman J, Van Oort A, Heringa A, Alsters J, Van Der Werf T, Daniels O. Normal diastolic filling patterns of the left ventricle. Eur Heart J. 1988;9:165-171.
25. Rakowski H, Appleton C, Chan KL, Dumesnil JG, Honos G, Jue J, Koilpillai C, Lepage S, Martin RP, Mercier LA, O'Kelly B, Prieur T, Sanfilippo A, Sasson Z, Alvarez N, Pruitt R, Thompson C, Tomlinson C. Canadian consensus recommendations for the measurement and reporting of diastolic dysfunction by echocardiography: from the Investigators of Consensus on Diastolic Dysfunction by Echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1996;9:736-760.
26. Redfield MM, Jacobsen SJ, Burnett JC Jr, Mahoney DW, Bailey KR, Rodeheffer RJ. Burden of systolic and diastolic ventricular dysfunction in the community: appreciating the scope of the heart failure epidemic. JAMA. 2003;289:194-202. (Pubitemid 36068707)
27. Gabriel RS, Klein AL. Modern evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function using Doppler echocardiography. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2009;11: 231-238.
28. Maurer MS, Spevack D, Burkhoff D, Kronzon I. Diastolic dysfunction: can it be diagnosed by Doppler echocardiography? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:1543-1549. (Pubitemid 39369784)
29. Rosenberg MA, Gottdiener JS, Heckbert SR, Mukamal KJ. Echocardiographic diastolic parameters and risk of atrial fibrillation: the cardiovascular health study. Eur Heart J. 2012;33:904-912.
30. Thomas JD, Choong CY, Flachskampf FA, Weyman AE. Analysis of the early transmitral Doppler velocity curve: effect of primary physiologic changes and compensatory preload adjustment. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;16:644-655. (Pubitemid 20296129)
31. Choong CY, Herrmann HC, Weyman AE, Fifer MA. Preload dependence of Doppler-derived indexes of left ventricular diastolic function in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1987;10:800-808. (Pubitemid 17163104)
32. Kuecherer HF, Muhiudeen IA, Kusumoto FM, Lee E, Moulinier LE, Cahalan MK, Schiller NB. Estimation of mean left atrial pressure from transesophageal pulsed Doppler echocardiography of pulmonary venous flow. Circulation. 1990;82:1127-1139.
33. Yamamoto K, Nishimura RA, Chaliki HP, Appleton CP, Holmes DR Jr, Redfield MM. Determination of left ventricular filling pressure by Doppler echocardiography in patients with coronary artery disease: critical role of left ventricular systolic function. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:1819-1826. (Pubitemid 27521268)
34. Rivas-Gotz C, Manolios M, Thohan V, Nagueh SF. Impact of left ventricular ejection fraction on estimation of left ventricular filling pressures using tissue Doppler and flow propagation velocity. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91:780-784. (Pubitemid 36287487)
35. Nagueh SF, Mikati I, Kopelen HA, Middleton KJ, Quinones MA, Zoghbi WA. Doppler estimation of left ventricular filling pressure in sinus tachycardia. A new application of tissue Doppler imaging. Circulation. 1998;98:1644-1650. (Pubitemid 28500387)
36. Nagueh SF, Middleton KJ, Kopelen HA, Zoghbi WA, Quinones MA. Doppler tissue imaging: a noninvasive technique for evaluation of left ventricular relaxation and estimation of filling pressures. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:1527-1533. (Pubitemid 27486472)
37. Brun P, Tribouilloy C, Duval AM, Iserin L, Meguira A, Pelle G, Dubois-Rande JL. Left ventricular flow propagation during early filling is related to wall relaxation: a color M-mode Doppler analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;20:420-432.
38. Stugaard M, Brodahl U, Torp H, Ihlen H. Abnormalities of left ventricular filling in patients with coronary artery disease: assessment by colour M-mode Doppler technique. Eur Heart J. 1994;15:318-327.
39. Gonzalez-Vilchez F, Ayuela J, Ares M, Mata NS, Gonzalez AG, Duran RM. Comparison of Doppler echocardiography, color M-mode Doppler, and Doppler tissue imaging for the estimation of pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2002;15:1245-1250. (Pubitemid 36528732)
40. Wang J, Khoury DS, Thohan V, Torre-Amione G, Nagueh SF. Global diastolic strain rate for the assessment of left ventricular relaxation and filling pressures. Circulation. 2007;115:1376-1383. (Pubitemid 46648373)
41. Motoki H, Dahiya A, Bhargava M, Wazni OM, Saliba WI, Marwick TH, Klein AL. Assessment of left atrial mechanics in patients with atrial fibrillation: comparison between two-dimensional speckle-based strain and velocity vector imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2012;25: 428-435.
42. Saraiva RM, Demirkol S, Buakhamsri A, Greenberg N, Popovic ZB, Thomas JD, Klein AL. Left atrial strain measured by two-dimensional speckle tracking represents a new tool to evaluate left atrial function. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2010;23:172-180.
43. Dahlstrom U. Can natriuretic peptides be used for the diagnosis of diastolic heart failure? Eur J Heart Fail. 2004;6:281-287. (Pubitemid 38253046)
44. Dokainish H, Zoghbi WA, Lakkis NM, Al-Bakshy F, Dhir M, Quinones MA, Nagueh SF. Optimal noninvasive assessment of left ventricular filling pressures: A comparison of tissue Doppler echocardiography and B-type natriuretic peptide in patients with pulmonary artery catheters. Circulation. 2004;109:2432-2439. (Pubitemid 38679564)
45. Lubien E, DeMaria A, Krishnaswamy P, Clopton P, Koon J, Kazanegra R, Gardetto N, Wanner E, Maisel AS. Utility of B-natriuretic peptide in detecting diastolic dysfunction: comparison with Doppler velocity recordings. Circulation. 2002;105:595-601. (Pubitemid 34123434)
46. Tsang TS, Gersh BJ, Appleton CP, Tajik AJ, Barnes ME, Bailey KR, Oh JK, Leibson C, Montgomery SC, Seward JB. Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction as a predictor of the first diagnosed nonvalvular atrial fibrillation in 840 elderly men and women. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 40:1636-1644. (Pubitemid 35253642)
47. Nagueh SF, Appleton CP, Gillebert TC, Marino PN, Oh JK, Smiseth OA, Waggoner AD, Flachskampf FA, Pellikka PA, Evangelista A. Recommendations for the evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function by echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2009;22: 107-133.
48. Oh JK, Hatle L, Tajik AJ, Little WC. Diastolic heart failure can be diagnosed by comprehensive two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47:500-506. (Pubitemid 43170836)
49. Quinones MA. Assessment of diastolic function. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2005;47:340-355. (Pubitemid 40884563)
50. Otto CM. Ventricular diastolic filling and function. Textbook of Clinical Echocardiography. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2009:157-181.
51. Grossman W. Evaluation of systolic and diastolic function of the ventricles and the myocardium. In: Baim DS, ed. Grossman's Cardiac Catheterization, Angiography, and Intervention. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006:315-332.
52. Aljaroudi W, Alraies MC, Halley C, Rodriguez L, Grimm RA, Thomas JD, Jaber WA. Impact of progression of diastolic dysfunction on mortality in patients with normal ejection fraction. Circulation. 2012;125: 782-788.
53. Periasamy M, Janssen PM. Molecular basis of diastolic dysfunction. Heart Fail Clin. 2008;4:13-21. (Pubitemid 351289332)
54. Kass DA, Bronzwaer JG, Paulus WJ. What mechanisms underlie diastolic dysfunction in heart failure? Circ Res. 2004;94:1533-1542. (Pubitemid 38856960)
55. Granzier HL, Labeit S. The giant protein titin: a major player in myocardial mechanics, signaling, and disease. Circ Res. 2004;94:284-295. (Pubitemid 38240719)
56. Stork T, Mockel M, Danne O, Ewert C, Muller R, Bodemann T, Eichstadt H, Hochrein H. Age-related hemodynamic changes during diastole: a combined M-mode and Doppler echo study. Int J Card Imaging. 1990;6:23-30.
57. Meta-analysis Research Group in Echocardiography (MeRGE) Heart Failure Collaborators. Independence of restrictive filling pattern and LV ejection fraction with mortality in heart failure: an individual patient meta-analysis. Eur J Heart Fail. 2008;10:786-792.
58. Takemoto Y, Barnes ME, Seward JB, Lester SJ, Appleton CA, Gersh BJ, Bailey KR, Tsang TS. Usefulness of left atrial volume in predicting first congestive heart failure in patients-or-65 years of age with well-preserved left ventricular systolic function. Am J Cardiol. 2005; 96:832-836.
59. Tsang TS, Barnes ME, Gersh BJ, Bailey KR, Seward JB. Left atrial volume as a morphophysiologic expression of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction and relation to cardiovascular risk burden. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90:1284-1289. (Pubitemid 35449471)
60. Tsang TS, Barnes ME, Gersh BJ, Takemoto Y, Rosales AG, Bailey KR, Seward JB. Prediction of risk for first age-related cardiovascular events in an elderly population: the incremental value of echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:1199-1205. (Pubitemid 37188341)
61. Douglas PS. The left atrium: a biomarker of chronic diastolic dysfunction and cardiovascular disease risk. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42: 1206-1207. (Pubitemid 37188342)
62. Manning WJ, Silverman DI, Katz SE, Riley MF, Come PC, Doherty RM, Munson JT, Douglas PS. Impaired left atrial mechanical function after cardioversion: relation to the duration of atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23:1535-1540. (Pubitemid 24182115)
63. Jeevanantham V, Ntim W, Navaneethan SD, Shah S, Johnson AC, Hall B, Shah A, Hundley WG, Daubert JP, Fitzgerald D. Meta-analysis of the effect of radiofrequency catheter ablation on left atrial size, volumes and function in patients with atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 2010;105: 1317-1326.
64. Wylie JV Jr, Peters DC, Essebag V, Manning WJ, Josephson ME, Hauser TH. Left atrial function and scar after catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm. 2008;5:656-662.
65. Patton KK, Ellinor PT, Heckbert SR, Christenson RH, DeFilippi C, Gottdiener JS, Kronmal RA. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide is a major predictor of the development of atrial fibrillation: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation. 2009;120:1768-1774.
66. Schotten U, Neuberger HR, Allessie MA. The role of atrial dilatation in the domestication of atrial fibrillation. Prog Biophys Mol Biol. 2003;82: 151-162. (Pubitemid 36551213)
67. Tsang TS, Barnes ME, Gersh BJ, Bailey KR, Seward JB. Risks for atrial fibrillation and congestive heart failure in patients-/-65 years of age with abnormal left ventricular diastolic relaxation. Am J Cardiol. 2004; 93:54-58.
68. Rosenberg MA, Gottdiener JS, Heckbert SR, Mukamal KJ. Echocardiographic diastolic parameters and risk of atrial fibrillation: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Eur Heart J. 2012;33:904-912.
69. Jons C, Joergensen RM, Hassager C, Gang UJ, Dixen U, Johannesen A, Olsen NT, Hansen TF, Messier M, Huikuri HV, Thomsen PE. Diastolic dysfunction predicts new-onset atrial fibrillation and cardiovascular events in patients with acute myocardial infarction and depressed left ventricular systolic function: a CARISMA substudy. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2010;11:602-607.
70. Celik S, Erdol C, Baykan M, Kaplan S, Kasap H. Relation between paroxysmal atrial fibrillation and left ventricular diastolic function in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2001;88: 160-162, A165. (Pubitemid 32607702)
71. From AM, Scott CG, Chen HH. The development of heart failure in patients with diabetes mellitus and pre-clinical diastolic dysfunction a population-based study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:300-305.
72. Vasan RS, Larson MG, Levy D, Galderisi M, Wolf PA, Benjamin EJ. Doppler transmitral flow indexes and risk of atrial fibrillation (the Framingham Heart Study). Am J Cardiol. 2003;91:1079-1083. (Pubitemid 36514923)
73. Kannel WB, Abbott RD, Savage DD, McNamara PM. Epidemiologic features of chronic atrial fibrillation: the Framingham study. N Engl J Med. 1982;306:1018-1022. (Pubitemid 12155370)
74. McManus DD, Corteville DC, Shlipak MG, Whooley MA, Ix JH. Relation of kidney function and albuminuria with atrial fibrillation (from the heart and soul study). Am J Cardiol. 2009;104:1551-1555.
75. Grimsmo J, Grundvold I, Maehlum S, Arnesen H. High prevalence of atrial fibrillation in long-term endurance cross-country skiers: echocardiographic findings and possible predictors-a 28-30 years follow-up study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2010;17:100-105.
76. Kang H, Bae BS, Kim JH, Jang HS, Lee BR, Jung BC. The relationship between chronic atrial fibrillation and reduced pulmonary function in cases of preserved left ventricular systolic function. Korean Circ J. 2009;39:372-377.
77. Persson H, Lonn E, Edner M, Baruch L, Lang CC, Morton JJ, Ostergren J, McKelvie RS. Diastolic dysfunction in heart failure with preserved systolic function: need for objective evidence: results from the CHARM echocardiographic Substudy-CHARMES. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49: 687-694. (Pubitemid 46205045)
78. Enriquez-Sarano M, Avierinos JF, Messika-Zeitoun D, Detaint D, Capps M, Nkomo V, Scott C, Schaff HV, Tajik AJ. Quantitative determinants of the outcome of asymptomatic mitral regurgitation. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:875-883. (Pubitemid 40300296)
79. Kerr CR, Humphries KH, Talajic M, Klein GJ, Connolly SJ, Green M, Boone J, Sheldon R, Dorian P, Newman D. Progression to chronic atrial fibrillation after the initial diagnosis of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: results from the Canadian Registry of Atrial Fibrillation. Am Heart J. 2005;149:489-496. (Pubitemid 40585413)
80. Bahouth F, Mutlak D, Furman M, Musallam A, Hammerman H, Lessick J, Dabbah S, Reisner S, Agmon Y, Aronson D. Relationship of functional mitral regurgitation to new-onset atrial fibrillation in acute myocardial infarction. Heart. 2010;96:683-688.
81. Gertz ZM, Raina A, Mountantonakis SE, Zado ES, Callans DJ, Marchlinski FE, Keane MG, Silvestry FE. The impact of mitral regurgitation on patients undergoing catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. Europace. 2011;13:1127-1132.
82. Maiello M, Sharma RK, Matteo CM, Reddy HK, Palmiero P. Differential left atrial remodeling in LV diastolic dysfunction and mitral regurgitation. Echocardiography. 2009;26:772-778.
83. Gertz ZM, Raina A, Saghy L, Zado ES, Callans DJ, Marchlinski FE, Keane MG, Silvestry FE. Evidence of atrial functional mitral regurgitation due to atrial fibrillation: reversal with arrhythmia control. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58:1474-1481.
84. Topilsky Y, Michelena H, Bichara V, Maalouf J, Mahoney DW, Enriquez-Sarano M. Mitral valve prolapse with mid-late systolic mitral regurgitation: pitfalls of evaluation and clinical outcome compared with holosystolic regurgitation. Circulation. 2012;125:1643-1651.
85. Calkins H, el-Atassi R, Kalbfleisch S, Langberg J, Morady F. Effects of an acute increase in atrial pressure on atrial refractoriness in humans. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1992;15:1674-1680.
86. Calkins H, el-Atassi R, Leon A, Kalbfleisch S, Borganelli M, Langberg J, Morady F. Effect of the atrioventricular relationship on atrial refractoriness in humans. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1992;15:771-778.
87. Klein LS, Miles WM, Zipes DP. Effect of atrioventricular interval during pacing or reciprocating tachycardia on atrial size, pressure, and refractory period. Contraction-excitation feedback in human atrium. Circulation. 1990;82:60-68. (Pubitemid 20216316)
88. Nazir SA, Lab MJ. Mechanoelectric feedback and atrial arrhythmias. Cardiovasc Res. 1996;32:52-61. (Pubitemid 26232653)
89. Efremidis M, Sideris A, Prappa E, Filippatos G, Athanasias D, Kardara D, Sioras I, Kardaras F. Effect of atrial pressure increase on effective refractory period and vulnerability to atrial fibrillation in patients with lone atrial fibrillation. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 1999;3:307-310.
90. Kaseda S, Zipes DP. Contraction-excitation feedback in the atria: a cause of changes in refractoriness. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;11: 1327-1336.
91. Nattel S, Shiroshita-Takeshita A, Brundel BJ, Rivard L. Mechanisms of atrial fibrillation: lessons from animal models. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2005;48:9-28. (Pubitemid 41368555)
92. Nattel S, Maguy A, Le Bouter S, Yeh YH. Arrhythmogenic ion-channel remodeling in the heart: heart failure, myocardial infarction, and atrial fibrillation. Physiol Rev. 2007;87:425-456. (Pubitemid 47084677)
93. Nattel S, Li D, Yue L. Basic mechanisms of atrial fibrillation-very new insights into very old ideas. Annu Rev Physiol. 2000;62:51-77. (Pubitemid 30618256)
94. Heineke J, Molkentin JD. Regulation of cardiac hypertrophy by intracellular signalling pathways. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2006;7:589-600. (Pubitemid 44325350)
95. Hanna N, Cardin S, Leung TK, Nattel S. Differences in atrial versus ventricular remodeling in dogs with ventricular tachypacing-induced congestive heart failure. Cardiovasc Res. 2004;63:236-244. (Pubitemid 38900838)
96. Cardin S, Pelletier P, Libby E, Le Bouter S, Xiao L, Kaab S, Demolombe S, Glass L, Nattel S. Marked differences between atrial and ventricular gene-expression remodeling in dogs with experimental heart failure. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2008;45:821-831.
97. Tsai CT, Chiang FT, Tseng CD, Yu CC, Wang YC, Lai LP, Hwang JJ, Lin JL. Mechanical stretch of atrial myocyte monolayer decreases sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium adenosine triphosphatase expression and increases susceptibility to repolarization alternans. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58:2106-2115.
98. Saygili E, Rana OR, Reuter H, Frank K, Schwinger RH, Muller-Ehmsen J, Zobel C. Losartan prevents stretch-induced electrical remodeling in cultured atrial neonatal myocytes. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;292:H2898-H2905. (Pubitemid 47084539)
99. Moe GK, Rheinboldt WC, Abildskov JA. A computer model of atrial fibrillation. Am Heart J. 1964;67:200-220.
100. Burstein B, Nattel S. Atrial fibrosis: mechanisms and clinical relevance in atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:802-809. (Pubitemid 351260071)
101. Tan AY, Zimetbaum P. Atrial fibrillation and atrial fibrosis. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2011;57:625-629.
102. Kataoka T, Hamasaki S, Inoue K, Yuasa T, Tomita K, Ishida S, Ogawa M, Saihara K, Koriyama C, Nobuyoshi M, Sakata R, Tei C. Left atrium volume index and pathological features of left atrial appendage as a predictor of failure in postoperative sinus conversion. J Cardiol. 2010; 55:274-282.
103. van der Velden HM, van Kempen MJ, Wijffels MC, van Zijverden M, Groenewegen WA, Allessie MA, Jongsma HJ. Altered pattern of connexin40 distribution in persistent atrial fibrillation in the goat. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1998;9:596-607. (Pubitemid 128721719)
104. Spach MS, Boineau JP. Microfibrosis produces electrical load variations due to loss of side-to-side cell connections: a major mechanism of structural heart disease arrhythmias. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1997; 20:397-413.
105. McEwan PE, Gray GA, Sherry L, Webb DJ, Kenyon CJ. Differential effects of angiotensin ii on cardiac cell proliferation and intramyocardial perivascular fibrosis in vivo. Circulation. 1998;98:2765-2773. (Pubitemid 28564014)
106. Sakabe M, Fujiki A, Nishida K, Sugao M, Nagasawa H, Tsuneda T, Mizumaki K, Inoue H. Enalapril prevents perpetuation of atrial fibrillation by suppressing atrial fibrosis and over-expression of connexin43 in a canine model of atrial pacing-induced left ventricular dysfunction. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2004;43:851-859. (Pubitemid 38679607)
107. Li D, Shinagawa K, Pang L, Leung TK, Cardin S, Wang Z, Nattel S. Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on the development of the atrial fibrillation substrate in dogs with ventricular tachypacinginduced congestive heart failure. Circulation. 2001;104:2608-2614. (Pubitemid 33104801)
108. Pedersen OD, Bagger H, Kober L, Torp-Pedersen C. Trandolapril reduces the incidence of atrial fibrillation after acute myocardial infarction in patients with left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation. 1999;100:376-380. (Pubitemid 29362407)
109. Ducharme A, Swedberg K, Pfeffer MA, Cohen-Solal A, Granger CB, Maggioni AP, Michelson EL, McMurray JJ, Olsson L, Rouleau JL, Young JB, Yusuf S. Prevention of atrial fibrillation in patients with symptomatic chronic heart failure by candesartan in the Candesartan in Heart failure: assessment of Reduction in Mortality and morbidity (CHARM) program. Am Heart J. 2006;151:985-991.
110. Schneider MP, Hua TA, Bohm M, Wachtell K, Kjeldsen SE, Schmieder RE. Prevention of atrial fibrillation by renin-angiotensin system inhibition a meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:2299-2307.
111. Yusuf S, Healey JS, Pogue J, Chrolavicius S, Flather M, Hart RG, Hohnloser SH, Joyner CD, Pfeffer MA, Connolly SJ. Irbesartan in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:928-938.
112. Disertori M, Latini R, Barlera S, Franzosi MG, Staszewsky L, Maggioni AP, Lucci D, Di Pasquale G, Tognoni G. Valsartan for prevention of recurrent atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1606-1617.
113. Staszewsky L, Wong M, Masson S, Raimondi E, Gramenzi S, Proietti G, Bicego D, Emanuelli C, Pulitano G, Taddei F, Nicolis EB, Correale E, Fabbri G, Bertocchi F, Franzosi MG, Maggioni AP, Tognoni G, Disertori M, Latini R. Left atrial remodeling and response to valsartan in the prevention of recurrent atrial fibrillation: the GISSI-AF echocardiographic substudy. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2011;4:721-728.
114. Nakajima H, Nakajima HO, Salcher O, Dittie AS, Dembowsky K, Jing S, Field LJ. Atrial but not ventricular fibrosis in mice expressing a mutant transforming growth factor-beta(1) transgene in the heart. Circ Res. 2000;86:571-579. (Pubitemid 30165049)
115. Solomon SD, Janardhanan R, Verma A, Bourgoun M, Daley WL, Purkayastha D, Lacourciere Y, Hippler SE, Fields H, Naqvi TZ, Mulvagh SL, Arnold JM, Thomas JD, Zile MR, Aurigemma GP. Effect of angiotensin receptor blockade and antihypertensive drugs on diastolic function in patients with hypertension and diastolic dysfunction: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2007;369:2079-2087. (Pubitemid 46935945)
116. Wachtell K, Palmieri V, Gerdts E, Bella JN, Aurigemma GP, Papademetriou V, Dahlof B, Aalto T, Ibsen H, Rokkedal JE, Devereux RB. Prognostic significance of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in patients with left ventricular hypertrophy and systemic hypertension (the life study). Am J Cardiol. 2010;106:999-1005.
117. Aurigemma GP. Diastolic heart failure-a common and lethal condition by any name. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:308-310. (Pubitemid 44079347)
118. Tsai EJ, Kass DA. Cyclic GMP signaling in cardiovascular pathophysiology and therapeutics. Pharmacol Ther. 2009;122:216-238.
119. Borlaug BA, Paulus WJ. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Eur Heart J. 2011;32: 670-679.
120. Silberman GA, Fan TH, Liu H, Jiao Z, Xiao HD, Lovelock JD, Boulden BM, Widder J, Fredd S, Bernstein KE, Wolska BM, Dikalov S, Harrison DG, Dudley SC Jr. Uncoupled cardiac nitric oxide synthase mediates diastolic dysfunction. Circulation. 2010;121:519-528.
121. Popovic ZB, Klein AL. Cracking the mysteries of diastolic function in atrial fibrillation: new technology for an old problem. J Am Coll Cardiol Cardiovasc Imaging. 2009;2:1157-1158.
122. Al-Omari MA, Finstuen J, Appleton CP, Barnes ME, Tsang TS. Echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular diastolic function and filling pressure in atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101:1759-1765.
123. Healey JS, Connolly SJ, Gold MR, Israel CW, Van Gelder IC, Capucci A, Lau CP, Fain E, Yang S, Bailleul C, Morillo CA, Carlson M, Themeles E, Kaufman ES, Hohnloser SH. Subclinical atrial fibrillation and the risk of stroke. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:120-129.
124. To AC, Flamm SD, Marwick TH, Klein AL. Clinical utility of multimodality la imaging: assessment of size, function, and structure. J Am Coll Cardiol Cardiovasc Imaging. 2011;4:788-798.
125. Jenkins C, Bricknell K, Marwick TH. Use of real-time threedimensional echocardiography to measure left atrial volume: comparison with other echocardiographic techniques. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2005;18:991-997. (Pubitemid 41253959)