Current and future ozone risks to global terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem processes

Ecology and Evolution

Volumn 6, Issue 24, 2016, Pages 8785-8799

  Fuhrer, Jürg ^a   Val Martin, Maria ^b   Mills, Gina ^c   Heald, Colette L ^d   Harmens, Harry ^c   Hayes, Felicity ^c   Sharps, Katrina ^c   Bender, Jürgen ^e   Ashmore, Mike R ^f  

^a AGROSCOPE RECKENHOLZ TÄNIKON RESEARCH STATION ART   (Switzerland)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

^c CENTRE FOR ECOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY   (United Kingdom)

^d Massachusetts Institute of Technology   (United States)

^e Federal Research Institute of Rural Areas Forestry and Fisheries vTI   (Germany)

^f UNIVERSITY OF YORK   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

air pollution; atmospheric feedback; Community Earth System Model; G200 ecoregions; global climate change; species diversity

Indexed keywords

EID: 85006007524     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20457758     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2568     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. 3 effects on host plant preferences of the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria). Global Change Biology, 11, 588–599.
2. Anav, A., De Marco, A., Proietti, C., Alessandri, A., Dell'Aquila, A., Cionni, I., … Vitale, M. (2016). Comparing concentration-based (AOT40) and stomatal uptake (PODY) metrics for ozone risk assessment to European forests. Global Change Biology, 22, 1608–1627.
3. 3. New Phytologist, 157, 213–228.
4. Aneja, M. K., Sharma, S., Fleischmann, F., Stich, S., Heller, W., Bahnweg, G., … Schloter, M. (2007). Influence of ozone on litter quality and its subsequent effects on the initial structure of colonizing microbial communities. Microbial Ecology, 54, 151–160.
5. Arbaugh, M. J., & Bytnerowicz, A. (2003). Ambient ozone patterns and effects over the Sierra Nevada: Synthesis and implications for future research. Developments in Environmental Science, 2, 249–261.
6. Ashmore, M. R. (2005). Assessing the future global impacts of ozone on vegetation. Plant Cell and Environment, 28, 949–964.
7. Bao, X., Li, Q., Hua, J., Zhao, T., & Liang, W. (2014). Interactive effects of elevated ozone and UV-B radiation on soil nematode diversity. Ecotoxicology, 23, 11–20.
8. Barbo, D. N., Chappelka, A. H., Somers, G. L., Miller-Goodman, M. S., & Stolte, K. (1998). Diversity of an early successional plant community as influenced by ozone. New Phytologist, 138, 653–662.
9. Bassin, S., Käch, D., Valsangiacomo, A., Mayer, J., Oberholzer, H.-R., Volk, M., & Fuhrer, J. (2015). Elevated ozone and nitrogen deposition affect nitrogen pools of subalpine grassland. Environmental Pollution, 201, 67–74.
10. Bassin, S., Volk, M., & Fuhrer, J. (2007). Factors affecting the ozone sensitivity of temperate European grasslands: An overview. Environmental Pollution, 146, 678–691.
11. 3 after seven years of treatment. Ecosystems, 16, 1105–1117.
12. Bender, J., Bergmann, E., & Weigel, H.-J. (2006). Responses of biomass production and reproductive development to ozone exposure differ between European wild plant species. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 176, 253–267.
13. 3 on the reproductive development of plants. New Phytologist, 147, 421–447.
14. Blande, J. D., Holopainen, J. K., & Niinemets, Ü. (2014). Plant volatiles in polluted atmospheres. Stress responses and signal degradation. Plant Cell and Environment, 37, 1892–1904.
15. Bleeker, A., Hicks, W. K., Dentener, F., Galloway, J., & Erisman, J. W. (2011). N deposition as a threat to the World's protected areas under the Convention on Biological Diversity. Environmental Pollution, 159, 2280–2288.
16. Bobbink, R., Hicks, K., Galloway, J., Spranger, T., Alkemade, R., Ashmore, M., … De Vries, W. (2010). Global assessment of nitrogen deposition effects on terrestrial plant diversity: A synthesis. Ecological Applications, 20, 30–59.
17. Bungener, P., Nussbaum, S., Grub, A., & Fuhrer, J. (1999). Growth response of grassland species to ozone in relation to soil moisture condition and plant strategy. New Phytologist, 142, 283–293.
18. Calvete-Sogo, H., Elvira, S., Sanz, J., González-Fernández, I., García-Gómez, H., Sánchez-Martín, L., … Bermejo-Bermejo, V. (2014). Current ozone levels threaten gross primary production and yield of Mediterranean annual pastures and nitrogen modulates the response. Atmosphertic Environment, 95, 197–206.
19. Calvete-Sogo, H., González-Fernández, I., Sanz, J., Elvira, S., Alonso, R., García-Gómez, H., … Bermejo-Bermejo, V. (2016). Heterogeneous responses to ozone and nitrogen alter the species composition of Mediterranean annual pastures (2016). Oecologia, 181, 1055–1067.
20. Cardinale, B. J., Duffy, J. E., Gonzalez, A., Hooper, D. U., Perrings, C., Venail, P., … Naeem, S. (2012). Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature, 486, 59–67.
21. CBD (2014) Secretariat of the convention on biological diversity. Global Biodiversity Outlook 4. Montréal, Canada, 155 pp.
22. 3 on decomposition of fine roots. Tree Physiology, 25, 1501–1510.
23. Chuwah, C., van Noije, T., van Vuuren, D. P., Stehfest, E., & Hazeleger, W. (2015). Global impacts of surface ozone changes on crop yields and land use. Atmospheric Environment, 106, 11–23.
24. CLRTAP (2015). Mapping Critical levels for vegetation chapter III of manual on methodologies and criteria for modelling and mapping critical loads and levels and air pollution effects risks and trends. UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution; Retrieved from www.icpmapping.org
25. Cooper, O. R., Parrish, D. D., Ziemke, J., Balashov, N. V., Cupeiro, M., Galbally, I. E., … Zbinden, R. M. (2014). Global distribution and trends of tropospheric ozone: An observation-based review. Elementa Science of the Anthropocene, 2, 000029.
26. Couture, J. J., & Lindroth, R. L. (2013). Impacts of atmospheric change on tree-arthropod interactions. Developments in Environmental Science, 13, 227–248.
27. Danielsson, H., Gelang, J., & Pleijel, H. (1999). Ozone sensitivity, growth and flower development in Phleum genotypes of different geographic origin in the Nordic countries. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 42, 41–49.
28. 3 on paper birch (Betula papyrifera) reproduction. Environmental Pollution, 155, 446–452.
29. Davison, A. W., & Barnes, J. D. (1998). Effects of ozone on wild plants. New Phytologist, 139, 135–151.
30. Diffenbaugh, N. S., & Giorgi, F. (2012). Climate change hotspots in the CIMP5 global climate model ensemble. Climate Change, 144, 813–822.
31. 2 and vapour pressure deficit) in three Populus deltoides × Populus nigra genotypes. Environmental Pollution, 173, 85–96.
32. 3. Global Change Biology, 17, 2184–2195.
33. Evans, P. A., & Ashmore, M. R. (1992). The effects of ambient air on a semi-natural grassland community. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 38, 91–97.
34. Farré-Armengol, G., Peñuelas, J., Li, T., Yli-Pirilä, P., Filella, I., Llusia, J., & Blande, J. D. (2016). Ozone degrades floral scent and reduces pollinator attraction to flowers. New Phytologist, 209, 152–160.
35. Fenn, M. E., Poth, M. A., Bytnerowicz, A., Sickman, J. O., & Takemoto, B. K. (2003). Effects of ozone, nitrogen deposition, and other stressors on montane ecosystems in the Sierra Nevada. Developments in Environmental Science, 2(C), 111–155.
36. Fiore, A. M., Naik, V., Spracklen, D. V., Steiner, A., Unger, N., Prather, M., … Zeng, G. (2012). Global air quality and climate. Chemical Society Reviews, 41, 6663–6683.
37. Frei, M. (2015). Breeding of ozone resistant rice: Relevance, approaches and challenges. Environmental Pollution, 197, 144–155.
38. Gessner, M. O., Swan, C. M., Dang, C. K., McKie, B. G., Bardgett, R. D., Wall, D. H., & Hättenschwiler, S. (2010). Diversity meets decomposition. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 25, 372–380.
39. Gimeno, B. S., Bermejo, V., Sanz, J., De La Torre, D., & Elvira, S. (2004). Growth response to ozone of annual species from Mediterranean pastures. Environmental Pollution, 132, 297–306.
40. Godbold, D. L., Hoosbeek, M. R., Lukac, M., Cotrufo, M. F., Janssens, I. A., Ceulemans, R., … Peressotti, A. (2006). Mycorrhizal hyphal turnover as a dominant process for carbon input into soil organic matter. Plant and Soil, 281, 15–24.
41. 3 impacts on plant development: A meta-analysis of root/shoot allocation and growth. Plant Cell and Environment, 29, 1193–1209.
42. Hardacre, C., Wild, O., & Emberson, L. (2015). An evaluation of ozone dry deposition in global scale chemistry climate models. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 15, 6419–6436.
43. Harmens, H., Mills, G., Emberson, L. D., & Ashmore, M. R. (2007). Implications of climate change for the stomatal flux of ozone: A case study for winter wheat. Environmental Pollution, 146, 763–770.
44. Harward, M., & Treshow, M. (1975). Impact of ozone on the growth and reproduction of understorey plants in the Aspen Zone of western U.S.A. Environmental Conservation, 2, 17–23.
45. Hayes, F., Jones, M. L. M., Mills, G., & Ashmore, M. (2007). Meta-analysis of the relative sensitivity of semi-natural vegetation species to ozone. Environmental Pollution, 146, 754–762.
46. Hayes, F., Wagg, S., Mills, G., Wilkinson, S., & Davies, W. (2012). Ozone effects in a drier climate: Implications for stomatal fluxes of reduced stomatal sensitivity to soil drying in a typical grassland species. Global Change Biology, 18, 948–959.
47. Hayes, F., Williamson, J., & Mills, G. (2012). Ozone pollution affects flower numbers and timing in a simulated BAP priority calcareous grassland community. Environmental Pollution, 163, 40–47.
48. 3 in a soybean agro-ecosystem. ISME Journal, 8, 714–726.
49. 3. Plant and Soil, 336, 75–85.
50. Hobbie, S. E., Eddy, W. C., Buyarski, C. R., Carol Adair, E., Ogdahl, M. L., & Weisenhorn, P. (2012). Response of decomposing litter and its microbial community to multiple forms of nitrogen enrichment. Ecological Monographs, 82, 389–405.
51. 3. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43, 1518–1527.
52. 3 alter soil nitrogen transformations beneath trembling aspen paper birch and sugar maple. Ecosystems, 9, 1354–1363.
53. Hooper, D. U., Adair, E. C., Cardinale, B. J., Byrnes, J. E. K., Hungate, B. A., Matulich, K. L., … Connor, M. I. (2012). A global synthesis reveals biodiversity loss as a major driver of ecosystem change. Nature, 486, 105–108.
54. Hoshika, Y., Katata, G., Deushi, M., Watanabe, M., Koike, T., & Paoletti, E. (2015). Ozone-induced stomatal sluggishness changes carbon and water balance of temperate deciduous forests. Scientific Reports, 5, 9871.
55. Hoshika, Y., Omasa, K., & Paoletti, E. (2013). Both ozone exposure and soil water stress are able to induce stomatal sluggishness. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 88, 19–23.
56. Hosika, Y., Watanabe, M., Katao, M., Haberle, K.-H., Grams, T. E. E., Koike, T., & Matyssek, R. (2015). Ozone induces stomatal narrowing in European and Siebold's beeches: A comparison between two experiments of free-air ozone exposure. Environmental Pollution, 196, 527–533.
57. Hu, E., Gao, F., Xin, Y., Jia, H., Li, K., Hu, J., & Feng, Z. (2015). Concentration- and flux-based ozone dose-response relationships for five poplar clones grown in North China. Environmental Pollution, 207, 21–30.
58. IPCC (2013). Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. In T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, & P. M. Midgley (Eds.), Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (1535 p.). Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
59. Jäggi, M., & Fuhrer, J. (2007). Oxygen and carbon isotopic signatures reveal a long-term effect of free-air ozone enrichment on leaf conductance in semi-natural grassland. Atmospheric Environment, 41, 8811–8817.
60. Jones, T. G., Freeman, C., Lloyd, A., & Mills, G. (2009). Impacts of elevated atmospheric ozone on peatland below-ground DOC characteristics. Ecological Engineering, 35, 971–977.
61. Jones, M. L. M., Hayes, F., Mills, G., Sparks, T. H., & Fuhrer, J. (2007). Predicting community sensitivity to ozone, using Ellenberg Indicator values. Environmental Pollution, 146, 744–753.
62. 2. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 40, 2502–2510.
63. Kasurinen, A., Biasi, C., Holopainen, T., Rousi, M., Maenpaa, M., & Oksanen, E. (2012). Interactive effects of elevated ozone and temperature on carbon allocation of silver birch (Betula pendula) genotypes in an open-air field exposure. Tree Physiology, 32, 737–751.
64. 3 levels during three growing seasons. Global Change Biology, 11, 1167–1179.
65. 3 levels during three growing seasons. Global Change Biology, 10, 1654–1665.
66. Katanić, M., Paoletti, E., Orlović, S., Grebenc, T., & Kraigher, H. (2014). Mycorrhizal status of an ozone-sensitive poplar clone treated with the antiozonant ethylene diurea. European Journal of Forestry Research, 133, 735–743.
67. Kim, J. S., Chappelka, A. H., & Miller-Goodman, M. S. (1998). Decomposition of blackberry and broomsedge bluestem as influenced by ozone. Journal of Environmental Quality, 27, 953–960.
68. 3: A synthesis of experimental evidence. Developments in Environmental Science, 13, 179–208.
69. Koike, T., Watanabe, M., Hoshika, Y., Kitao, M., Matsumura, H., Funada, R., & Izuta, T. (2013). Effects of ozone on forest ecosystems in East and Southeast Asia. Developments in Environmental Science, 13, 371–390.
70. 3 affects the genetic composition of Plantago lanceolata L. populations. Environmental Pollution, 152, 380–386.
71. 3 exposure. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 204, 72–81.
72. 3 on intra- and interspecific competitive ability of aspen. Plant Biology, 9, 342–355.
73. Larson, J. L., Zak, D. R., & Sinsabaugh, R. L. (2002). Extracellular enzyme activity beneath temperate trees growing under elevated carbon dioxide and ozone. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 66, 1848–1856.
74. Leisner, C. P., & Ainsworth, E. A. (2012). Quantifying the effects of ozone on plant reproductive growth and development. Global Change Biology, 18, 606–616.
75. Li, J., Lin, X., Chen, A., Peterson, T., Ma, K., Bertzky, M., … Poulter, B. (2013). Global priority conservation areas in the face of 21st Century climate change. PLoS One, 8, e54839.
76. Lin, Y.-S., Medlyn, B. E., Duursma, R. A., Prentice, C., Wang, H., Baig, S., … Mikkelsen, T. N. (2015). Optimal stomatal behaviour around the world. Nature Climate Change, 5, 459–464.
77. 3 on forests: Phytochemistry, trophic interactions, and ecosystem dynamics. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 36, 2–21.
78. Lindroth, R. L., Kopper, B. J., Parsons, W. F. J., Bockheim, J. G., Karnosky, D. F., Hendrey, G. R., … Sober, J. (2001). Consequences of elevated carbon dioxide and ozone for foliar chemical composition and dynamics in trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and paper birch (Betula papyrifera). Environmental Pollution, 115, 395–404.
79. 3 on leaf litter production and chemistry in trembling aspen and paper birch communities. Tree Physiology, 25, 1511–1522.
80. Lombardozzi, D., Levis, S., Bonan, G., Hess, P. G., & Sparks, J. P. (2015). The influence of chronic ozone exposure on global carbon and water cycles. Journal of Climate, 28, 292–305.
81. Loya, W. M., Pregitzer, K. S., Karberg, N. J., King, J. S., & Giardina, C. P. (2003). Reduction of soil carbon formation by tropospheric ozone under increased carbon dioxide levels. Nature, 425, 705–707.
82. Maestre, F. T., Callaway, R. M., Valladares, F., & Lortie, C. J. (2009). Refining the stress-gradient hypothesis for competition and facilitation in plant communities. Journal of Ecology, 97, 199–205.
83. McFrederick, Q. S., Fuentes, J. D., Roulston, T., Kathilankal, J. C., & Lerdau, M. (2009). Effects of air pollution on biogenic volatiles and ecological interactions. Oecologia, 160, 411–420.
84. McFrederick, Q. S., Kathilankal, J. C., & Fuentes, J. D. (2008). Air pollution modifies floral scent trails. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 2336–2348.
85. McLaughlin, S. B., Wullschleger, S. D., Sun, G., & Nosal, M. (2007). Interactive effects of ozone and climate on water use soil moisture content and streamflow in a southern Appalachian forest in the USA. New Phytologist, 174, 125–136.
86. Meier, C. L., & Bowman, W. D. (2008). Links between plant litter chemistry, species diversity, and below-ground ecosystem function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 19780–19785.
87. Miller, P. L. (1973). Oxidant-induced community change in a mixed conifer forest. In J. A. Naegele (Ed.), Air pollution damage to vegetation. Advances in Chemistry Series 122 (pp. 101–117). American Chemical Society.
88. Mills, G., Harmens, H., Wagg, S., Sharps, K., Hayes, F., Fowler, D., … Davies, W. (2016). Ozone impacts on vegetation in a nitrogen enriched and changing climate. Environmental Pollution, 208, 898–908.
89. Mills, G., Hayes, F., Simpson, D., Emberson, L., Norris, D., Harmens, H., & Büker, P. (2011). Evidence of widespread effects of ozone on crops and (semi-)natural vegetation in Europe (1990–2006) in relation to AOT40- and flux-based risk maps. Global Change Biology, 17, 592–613.
90. Mills, G., Hayes, F., Wilkinson, S., & Davies, W. J. (2009). Chronic exposure to increasing background ozone impairs stomatal functioning in grassland species. Global Change Biology, 15, 1522–1533.
91. Mills, G., Pleijel, H., Braun, S., Büker, P., Bermejo, V., Calvo, E., … Simpson, D. (2011). New stomatal flux-based critical levels for ozone effects on vegetation. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 5064–5068.
92. 2 and ozone shift the genetic composition of aspen (Populus tremuloides) stands? New Phytologist, 198, 466–475.
93. 3 effects on vegetation microbial community and methane dynamics of boreal peatland microcosms in open-field studies. Global Change Biology, 14, 1891–1903.
94. Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., de Fonesca, G. A. B., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403, 853–858.
95. Niklaus, P. A., Le Roux, X., Poly, F., Buchmann, N., Scherer-Lorenzen, M., Weigelt, A., & Barnard, R. L. (2016). Plant species diversity affects soil–atmosphere fluxes of methane and nitrous oxide. Oecologia, 181, 919–930.
96. Nikolova, P. S., Andersen, C. P., Blaschke, H., Matyssek, R., & Häberle, K.-H. (2010). Belowground effects of enhanced tropospheric ozone and drought in a beech/spruce forest (Fagus sylvatica L./Picea abies [L.] Karst). Environmental Pollution, 158, 1071–1078.
97. 3 in a Schima superba plantation in subtropical China derived from sap flow measurements. Science of the Total Environment, 545–546, 465–475.
98. Nussbaum, S., Bungener, P., Geissmann, M., & Fuhrer, J. (2000). Plant-plant interactions and soil moisture might be important in determining ozone impacts on grasslands. New Phytologist, 147, 327–335.
99. Olson, D. M., & Dinerstein, E. (1998). The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions. Conservation Biology, 12, 502–515.
100. Payne, R. J., Stevens, C. J., Dise, N. B., Gowing, D. J., Pilkington, M. G., Phoenix, G. K., … Ashmore, M. R. (2011). Impacts of atmospheric pollution on the plant communities of British acid grasslands. Environmental Pollution, 159, 2602–2608.
101. Percy, K. E., Mankovska, B., Hopkin, A., Callan, B., & Karnosky, D. F. (2003). Ozone affects leaf surface-pest interactions. Developments in Environmental Science, 3, 247–258.
102. Pritsch, K., Esperschuetz, J., Haesler, F., Raidl, S., Winkler, B., & Schloter, M. (2009). Structure and activities of ectomycorrhizal and microbial communities in the rhizosphere of Fagus sylvatica under ozone and pathogen stress in a lysimeter study. Plant and Soil, 323, 97–109.
103. 2. Environmental Pollution, 145, 850–860.
104. 3 pollution and climate variability on net primary productivity and carbon storage in China's grassland ecosystems from 1961 to 2000. Environmental Pollution, 149, 327–335.
105. Richet, N., Tozo, K., Afif, D., Banvoy, J., Legay, S., Dizengremel, P., & Cabané, M. (2012). The response to daylight or continuous ozone of phenylpropanoid and lignin biosynthesis pathways in poplar differs between leaves and wood. Planta, 236, 727–737.
106. Sala, O. E., Chapin III, F. S., Armesto, J. J., Berlow, E., Bloomfield, J., Dirzo, R., … Wall, D. H. (2000). Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science, 287, 1770–1774.
107. Schaub, M., & Calatayud, V. (2013). Assessment of visible foliar injury induced by ozone. Developments in Environmental Science, 12, 205–221.
108. Schrader, S., Bender, J., & Weigel, H.-J. (2009). Ozone exposure of field-grown winter wheat affects soil mesofauna in the rhizosphere. Environmental Pollution, 157, 3357–3362.
109. Shen, W., Zou, C., Liu, D., Ouyang, Y., Zhang, H., Yang, C., … Lin, N. (2015). Climate-forced ecological changes over the Tibetan Plateau. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 114, 27–35.
110. Simpson, D., Arneth, A., Mills, G., Solberg, S., & Uddling, J. (2014). Ozone—The persistent menace: Interactions with the N cycle and climate change. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 9–10, 9–19.
111. 3 effects on the land-carbon sink. Nature, 448, 791–794.
112. 3-exposure experiment in semi-natural grassland. Oecologia, 162, 515–522.
113. Sun, G., McLaughlin, S. B., Porter, J. H., Uddling, J., Mulholland, P. J., Adams, M. B., & Pederson, N. (2012). Interactive influences of ozone and climate on streamflow of forested watersheds. Global Change Biology, 18, 3395–3409.
114. 2 assimilation at the diurnal scale: A case study for grassland in the Netherlands. Journal of Geophysical Research G: Biogeosciences, 120, 1348–1365.
115. Tai, A. P. K., Martin, M. V., & Heald, C. L. (2014). Threat to future global food security from climate change and ozone air pollution. Nature Climate Change, 4, 817–821.
116. Talhelm, A. F., Pregitzer, K. S., Kubiske, M. E., Zak, D. R., Campany, C. E., Burton, A. J., … Karnosky, D. F. (2014). Elevated carbon dioxide and ozone alter productivity and ecosystem carbon content in northern temperate forests. Global Change Biology, 20, 2492–2504.
117. 2O emission from paddy soil under fully open-air field conditions. Global Change Biology, 21, 1727–1736.
118. Tilman, D., & Lehman, C. (2001). Human-caused environmental change: Impacts on plant diversity and evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 5433–5440.
119. Tilmes, S., Lamarque, J.-F., Emmons, L. K., Kinnison, D. E., Marsh, D., Garcia, R. R., … Blake, N. (2016). Representation of the Community Earth System Model (CESM1) CAM4-chem within the Chemistry-Climate Model Initiative (CCMI). Geoscientific Model Development, 9, 1853–1890.
120. Toet, S., Ineson, P., Peacock, S., & Ashmore, M. (2011). Elevated ozone reduces methane emissions from peatland mesocosms. Global Change Biology, 17, 288–296.
121. Turco, M., Palazzi, E., von Hardenberg, J., & Provenzale, A. (2015). Observed climate change hotpsots. Geophysical Research Letters, 42, 3521–3528.
122. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2014). Welfare risk and exposure assessment for ozone. Retrieved from http://www3.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/ozoneO3/data/20140829healthrea.pdf
123. 3 exposure. Plant Cell and Environment, 38, 240–252.
124. Val Martin, M., Heald, C. L., Lamarque, J.-F., Tilmes, S., Emmons, L. K., & Schichtel, B. A. (2015). How emissions, climate, and land use change will impact mid-century air quality over the United States: A focus on effects at National Parks. Atmospheric Chemistry & Physics, 15, 2805–2823.
125. 2 on tree leaf chemistry and insect herbivore performance: A meta-analysis. Global Change Biology, 13, 184–201.
126. Volk, M., Bungener, P., Contat, F., Montani, M., & Fuhrer, J. (2006). Grassland yield declined by a quarter in 5 years of free-air ozone fumigation. Global Change Biology, 12, 74–83.
127. Volk, M., Obrist, D., Novak, K., Giger, R., Bassin, S., & Fuhrer, J. (2011). Subalpine grassland carbon dioxide fluxes indicate substantial carbon losses under increased nitrogen deposition but not at elevated ozone concentration. Global Change Biology, 17, 366–376.
128. 3 exposure is independent of N input and climatic drivers. Environmental Pollution, 189, 161–168.
129. 3. Environmental Pollution, 197, 116–126.
130. Wang, B., Shugart, H. H., Shuman, J. K., & Lerdau, M. T. (2016). Forests and ozone: Productivity, carbon storage, and feedbacks. Scientifc Reports, 6, 22133.
131. Wedlich, K. V., Rintoul, N., Peacock, S., Cape, J. N., Coyle, M., Toet, S., … Ashmore, M. (2012). Effects of ozone on species composition in an upland grassland. Oecologia, 168, 1137–1146.
132. 3. Progress in Botany, 76, 395–438.
133. West, J. J., & Fiore, A. M. (2005). Management of tropospheric ozone by reducing methane emissions. Environmental Science and Technology, 39, 4685–4691.
134. Westman, W. E. (1979). Oxidant effects on Californian coastal sage scrub. Science, 205, 1001–1003.
135. 3: A parameterized approach. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12, 2037–2054.
136. Wilkinson, S., & Davies, W. J. (2009). Ozone suppresses soil drying- and abscisic acid (ABA)-induced stomatal closure via an ethylene-dependent mechanism. Plant Cell and Environment, 32, 949–959.
137. Wilkinson, S., & Davies, W. J. (2010). Drought, ozone, ABA and ethylene: New insights from cell to plant to community. Plant Cell and Environment, 33, 510–525.
138. Williamson, J., Mills, G., & Freeman, C. (2010). Species-specific effects of elevated ozone on wetland plants and decomposition processes. Environmental Pollution, 158, 1197–1206.
139. Williamson, J. L., Mills, G., Hayes, F., Jones, T., & Freeman, C. (2016). How do increasing background concentrations of tropospheric ozone affect peatland plant growth and carbon gas exchange? Atmospheric Environment, 127, 133–138.
140. Wittig, V. E., Ainsworth, E. A., Naidu, S. L., Karnosky, D. F., & Long, S. P. (2009). Quantifying the impact of current and future tropospheric ozone on tree biomass growth physiology and biochemistry: A quantitative meta-analysis. Global Change Biology, 15, 396–424.
141. Xu, E., Vaahtera, L., Hörak, H., Hincha, D. K., Heyer, A. G., & Brosché, M. (2015). Quantitative trait loci mapping and transcriptome analysis reveal candidate genes regulating the response to ozone in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant, Cell and Environment, 38, 1418–1433.
142. Yoshida, L. C., Gamon, J. A., & Andersen, C. P. (2001). Differences in above- and below-ground responses to ozone between two populations of a perennial grass. Plant and Soil, 233, 203–211.
143. 3: A meta-analysis. Journal of Geophysical Research G: Biogeosciences, 120, 441–451.
144. 3 exposure are plant species-specific. Plant and Soil, 376, 139–149.