Drug models of schizophrenia

Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 43-58

  Steeds, Hannah ^a   Carhart Harris, Robin L ^a   Stone, James M ^b  

^a IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

amphetamine; cannabis; drug models; kappa opioid; ketamine; LSD; models; PCP; psilocybin; psychosis; salvia divinorum; schizophrenia; THC

Indexed keywords

AMPHETAMINE; CANNABIS; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; ENDOCANNABINOID; GLUTAMIC ACID; KAPPA OPIATE RECEPTOR AGONIST; MUSCARINIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NEUROTRANSMITTER; PSYCHOSTIMULANT AGENT; SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN 2A ANTAGONIST;

CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DOPAMINERGIC TRANSMISSION; GABAERGIC SYSTEM; HUMAN; NEGATIVE SYNDROME; NEUROCHEMISTRY; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; POSITIVE SYNDROME; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SYMPTOMATOLOGY;

EID: 84997909476     PISSN: 20451253     EISSN: 20451261     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/2045125314557797     Document Type: Review

References (177)

1. Abbott A. (2010) Schizophrenia: The drug deadlock. Nature 468: 158–159.
2. Abi-Dargham A. van de Giessen E. Slifstein M. Kegeles L. Laruelle M. (2009) Baseline and amphetamine-stimulated dopamine activity are related in drug-naive schizophrenic subjects Biol Psychiatry 65: 1091–1093.
3. Abi-Saab W. D’Souza D. Moghaddam B. Krystal J. (1998) The NMDA antagonist model for schizophrenia: promise and pitfalls. Pharmacopsychiatry 31(Suppl. 2): 104–109.
4. Aghajanian G. Marek G. (2000) Serotonin model of schizophrenia: emerging role of glutamate mechanisms. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 31: 302–312.
5. Ahn K. Gil R. Seibyl J. Sewell R.A. D’Souza D.C. (2011) Probing GABA receptor function in schizophrenia with iomazenil. Neuropsychopharmacology 36: 677–683.
6. Akhondzadeh S. Malek-Hosseini M. Ghoreishi A. Raznahan M. Rezazadeh S. (2008) Effect of ritanserin, a 5HT2A/2C antagonist, on negative symptoms of schizophrenia: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 32: 1879–1883.
7. Angrist B. Gershon S. (1970) The phenomenology of experimentally induced amphetamine psychosis - preliminary observations. Biol Psychiatry 2: 95–107.
8. Angrist B. Sathananthan G. Wilk S. Gershon S. (1974) Amphetamine psychosis: behavioral and biochemical aspects. J Psychiatr Res 11: 13–23.
9. Arias H. Santamaria A. Ali S. (2009) Pharmacological and neurotoxicological actions mediated by bupropion and diethylpropion. Int Rev Neurobiol 88: 223–255.
10. Barak S. (2009) Modeling cholinergic aspects of schizophrenia: focus on the antimuscarinic syndrome. Behav Brain Res 204: 335–351.
11. Barak S. Weiner I. (2011) Putative cognitive enhancers in preclinical models related to schizophrenia: the search for an elusive target. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 99: 164–189.
12. Behrens M. Ali S. Dao D. Lucero J. Shekhtman G. Quick K. et al. (2007) Ketamine-induced loss of phenotype of fast-spiking interneurons is mediated by NADPH-oxidase. Science 318: 1645–1647.
13. Bell D. (1973) The experimental reproduction of amphetamine psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 29: 35–40.
14. Boonstra G. Burger H. Grobbee D. Kahn R. (2011) Antipsychotic prophylaxis is needed after remission from a first psychotic episode in schizophrenia patients: results from an aborted randomised trial. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract 15: 128–134.
15. Bramness J. Gundersen O. Guterstam J. Rognli E. Konstenius M. Loberg E. et al. (2012) Amphetamine-induced psychosis - a separate diagnostic entity or primary psychosis triggered in the vulnerable? BMC Psychiatry 12: 221–244.
16. Breakey W. Goodell H. Lorenz P. McHugh P. (1974) Hallucinogenic drugs as precipitants of schizophrenia. Psychol Med 4: 255–261.
17. Breese G. Knapp D. Moy S. (2002) Integrative role for serotonergic and glutamatergic receptor mechanisms in the action of NMDA antagonists: potential relationships to antipsychotic drug actions on NMDA antagonist responsiveness. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 26: 441–455.
18. Buchanan R. Keefe R. Lieberman J. Barch D. Csernansky J. Goff D. et al. (2011) A randomized clinical trial of MK-0777 for the treatment of cognitive impairments in people with schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 69: 442–449.
19. Carhart-Harris R. Brugger S. Nutt D. Stone J. (2013a) Psychiatry's next top model: cause for a re-think on drug models of psychosis and other psychiatric disorders. J Psychopharmacol 27: 771–778.
20. Carhart-Harris R. Erritzoe D. Williams T. Stone J. Reed L. Colasanti A. et al. (2012) Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109: 2138–2143.
21. Carhart-Harris R. Leech R. Erritzoe D. Williams T. Stone J. Evans J. et al. (2013b) Functional connectivity measures after psilocybin inform a novel hypothesis of early psychosis. Schizophr Bull 39: 1343–1351.
22. Carter O. Burr D. Pettigrew J. Wallis G. Hasler F. Vollenweider F. (2005) Using psilocybin to investigate the relationship between attention, working memory, and the serotonin 1A and 2A receptors. J Cogn Neurosci 17: 1497–1508.
23. Cerimele J. Durango A. (2012) Does varenicline worsen psychiatric symptoms in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder? A review of published studies. J Clin Psychiatry 73: e1039–e1047.
24. Corlett P. Frith C. Fletcher P. (2009) From drugs to deprivation: a Bayesian framework for understanding models of psychosis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 206: 515–530.
25. Corlett P. Honey G. Fletcher P. (2007) From prediction error to psychosis: ketamine as a pharmacological model of delusions. J Psychopharmacol 21: 238–252.
26. Curran H. D’Souza D. Robbins T. Fletcher P. (2009) Modelling psychosis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 206: 513–514.
27. Davis K. Kahn R. Ko G. Davidson M. (1991) Dopamine in schizophrenia: a review and reconceptualization. Am J Psychiatry 148: 1474–1486.
28. de Paulis T. (2001) M-100907 (Aventis). Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2: 123–132.
29. Deakin J. Lees J. McKie S. Hallak J. Williams S. Dursun S. (2008) Glutamate and the neural basis of the subjective effects of ketamine: a pharmaco-magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65: 154–164.
30. Del Arco A. Martinez R. Mora F. (1998) Amphetamine increases extracellular concentrations of glutamate in the prefrontal cortex of the awake rat: a microdialysis study. Neurochem Res 23: 1153–1158.
31. Demjaha A. Egerton A. Murray R. Kapur S. Howes O. Stone J. et al. (2014) Antipsychotic treatment resistance in schizophrenia associated with elevated glutamate levels but normal dopamine function. Biol Psychiatry 75(5): e11–e13.
32. Demjaha A. Murray R. McGuire P. Kapur S. Howes O. (2012) Dopamine synthesis capacity in patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 169: 1203–1210.
33. Deutsch S. Rosse R. Schwartz B. Mastropaolo J. (2001) A revised excitotoxic hypothesis of schizophrenia: therapeutic implications. Clin Neuropharmacol 24: 43–49.
34. Domino E. Mirzoyan D. Tsukada H. (2004) N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists as drug models of schizophrenia: a surprising link to tobacco smoking. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 28: 801–811.
35. Driesen N. McCarthy G. Bhagwagar Z. Bloch M. Calhoun V. D’Souza D. et al. (2013) Relationship of resting brain hyperconnectivity and schizophrenia-like symptoms produced by the NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine in humans. Mol Psychiatry 18: 1199–1204.
36. D’Souza D. (2007) Cannabinoids and psychosis. Int Rev Neurobiol 78: 289–326.
37. D’Souza D. Abi-Saab W. Madonick S. Forselius-Bielen K. Doersch A. Braley G. et al. (2005) Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects in schizophrenia: implications for cognition, psychosis, and addiction. Biol Psychiatry 57: 594–608.
38. D’Souza D.C. Ahn K. Bhakta S. Elander J. Singh N. Nadim H. et al. (2012) Nicotine fails to attenuate ketamine-induced cognitive deficits and negative and positive symptoms in humans: implications for schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 72: 785–794.
39. D’Souza D. Gil R. Zuzarte E. MacDougall L. Donahue L. Ebersole J. et al. (2006) Gamma-aminobutyric acid-serotonin interactions in healthy men: implications for network models of psychosis and dissociation. Biol Psychiatry 59: 128–137.
40. D’Souza D. Perry E. MacDougall L. Ammerman Y. Cooper T. Wu Y. et al. (2004) The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 29: 1558–1572.
41. Ebdrup B. Rasmussen H. Arnt J. Glenthoj B. (2011) Serotonin 2A receptor antagonists for treatment of schizophrenia. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 20: 1211–1223.
42. Egerton A. Brugger S. Raffin M. Barker G. Lythgoe D. McGuire P. et al. (2012) Anterior cingulate glutamate levels related to clinical status following treatment in first-episode schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacology 37: 2515–2521.
43. Farren C. Hameedi F. Rosen M. Woods S. Jatlow P. Kosten T. (2000) Significant interaction between clozapine and cocaine in cocaine addicts. Drug Alcohol Depend 59: 153–163.
44. Featherstone R. Kapur S. Fletcher P. (2007) The amphetamine-induced sensitized state as a model of schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 31: 1556–1571.
45. Fernandez-Espejo E. Viveros M. Nunez L. Ellenbroek B. Rodriguez de Fonseca F. (2009) Role of cannabis and endocannabinoids in the genesis of schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 206: 531–549.
46. Fletcher P. Honey G. (2006) Schizophrenia, ketamine and cannabis: evidence of overlapping memory deficits. Trends Cogn Sci 10: 167–174.
47. Fletcher P. Tenn C. Rizos Z. Lovic V. Kapur S. (2005) Sensitization to amphetamine, but not PCP, impairs attentional set shifting: reversal by a D1 receptor agonist injected into the medial prefrontal cortex. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 183: 190–200.
48. Ford J. Mathalon D. Whitfield S. Faustman W. Roth W. (2002) Reduced communication between frontal and temporal lobes during talking in schizophrenia Biol Psychiatry 51: 485–492.
49. Ford J. Roach B. Faustman W. Mathalon D. (2007) Synch before you speak: auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 164: 458–66.
50. Foster D. Jones C. Conn P. (2012) Emerging approaches for treatment of schizophrenia: modulation of cholinergic signaling. Discov Med 14: 413–420.
51. Freedman R. Olincy A. Buchanan R. Harris J. Gold J. Johnson L. et al. (2008) Initial phase 2 trial of a nicotinic agonist in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 165: 1040–1047.
52. Gallinat J. Rentzsch J. Roser P. (2012) Neurophysiological effects of cannabinoids: implications for psychosis research. Curr Pharm Des 18: 4938–4949.
53. Geyer M. Vollenweider F. (2008) Serotonin research: contributions to understanding psychoses. Trends Pharmacol Sci 29: 445–453.
54. Gill K. Lodge D. Cook J. Aras S. Grace A. (2011) A novel alpha5GABA(A)R-positive allosteric modulator reverses hyperactivation of the dopamine system in the MAM model of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 36: 1903–1911.
55. Goff D. Coyle J. (2001) The emerging role of glutamate in the pathophysiology and treatment of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 158: 1367–1377.
56. Hallak J. Dursun S. Bosi D. de Macedo L. Machado-de-Sousa J. Abrao J. et al. (2011) The interplay of cannabinoid and NMDA glutamate receptor systems in humans: preliminary evidence of interactive effects of cannabidiol and ketamine in healthy human subjects Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 35: 198–202.
57. Harris D. Batki S. (2000) Stimulant psychosis: symptom profile and acute clinical course. Am J Addict 9: 28–37.
58. Hertzmann M. Reba R. Kotlyarov E. (1990) Single photon emission computed tomography in phencyclidine and related drug abuse. Am J Psychiatry 147: 255–256.
59. Homayoun H. Moghaddam B. (2007) NMDA receptor hypofunction produces opposite effects on prefrontal cortex interneurons and pyramidal neurons J Neurosci 27: 11496–11500.
60. Howes O. Kambeitz J. Kim E. Stahl D. Slifstein M. Abi-Dargham A. et al. (2012) The nature of dopamine dysfunction in schizophrenia and what this means for treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 69: 776–786.
61. Hyde C. Glancy G. Omerod P. Hall D. Taylor G. (1978) Abuse of indigenous psilocybin mushrooms: a new fashion and some psychiatric complications. Br J Psychiatry 132: 602–604.
62. Japha K. Koch M. (1999) Picrotoxin in the medial prefrontal cortex impairs sensorimotor gating in rats: reversal by haloperidol. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 144: 347–354.
63. Javitt D. (1987) Negative schizophrenic symptomatology and the PCP (phencyclidine) model of schizophrenia. Hillside J Clin Psychiatry 9: 12–35.
64. Javitt D. Zukin S. (1991) Recent advances in the phencyclidine model of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 148: 1301–1308.
65. Jentsch J. Redmond D. Jr Elsworth J. Taylor J. Youngren K. Roth R. (1997) Enduring cognitive deficits and cortical dopamine dysfunction in monkeys after long-term administration of phencyclidine. Science 277: 953–955.
66. Jentsch J. Roth R. (1999) The neuropsychopharmacology of phencyclidine: from NMDA receptor hypofunction to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 20: 201–225.
67. Johnson M. MacLean K. Reissig C. Prisinzano T. Griffiths R. (2011) Human psychopharmacology and dose-effects of salvinorin A, a kappa opioid agonist hallucinogen present in the plant salvia divinorum. Drug Alcohol Depend 115: 150–155.
68. Jones C. Watson D. Fone K. (2011) Animal models of schizophrenia. Br J Pharmacol 164: 1162–1194.
69. Kapur S. Mamo D. (2003) Half a century of antipsychotics and still a central role for dopamine D2 receptors Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 27: 1081–1090.
70. Kapur S. Mizrahi R. Li M. (2005) From dopamine to salience to psychosis - linking biology, pharmacology and phenomenology of psychosis. Schizophr Res 79: 59–68.
71. Kapur S. Seeman P. (2002) NMDA receptor antagonists ketamine and PCP have direct effects on the dopamine D(2) and serotonin 5-HT(2) receptors-implications for models of schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 7: 837–44.
72. Kegeles L. Abi-Dargham A. Frankle W. Gil R. Cooper T. Slifstein M. et al. (2010) Increased synaptic dopamine function in associative regions of the striatum in schizophrenia Arch Gen Psychiatry 67: 231–239.
73. Kegeles L. Martinez D. Kochan L. Hwang D. Huang Y. Mawlawi O. et al. (2002) NMDA antagonist effects on striatal dopamine release: positron emission tomography studies in humans. Synapse 43: 19–29.
74. Klinkenberg I. Blokland A. (2010) The validity of scopolamine as a pharmacological model for cognitive impairment: a review of animal behavioral studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 34: 1307–1350.
75. Klosterkotter J. Hellmich M. Steinmeyer E. Schultze-Lutter F. (2001) Diagnosing schizophrenia in the initial prodromal phase. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58: 158–164.
76. Koethe D. Gerth C. Neatby M. Haensel A. Thies M. Schneider U. et al. (2006) Disturbances of visual information processing in early states of psychosis and experimental delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol altered states of consciousness. Schizophr Res 88: 142–150.
77. Koethe D. Hoyer C. Leweke F. (2009) The endocannabinoid system as a target for modelling psychosis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 206: 551–561.
78. Krystal J. Karper L. Seibyl J. Freeman G. Delaney R. Bremner J. et al. (1994) Subanesthetic effects of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist, ketamine, in humans. Psychotomimetic, perceptual, cognitive, and neuroendocrine responses. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51: 199–214.
79. Krystal J. Perry E., J. Gueorguieva R. Belger A. Madonick S. Abi-Dargham A. et al. (2005) Comparative and interactive human psychopharmacologic effects of ketamine and amphetamine: implications for glutamatergic and dopaminergic model psychoses and cognitive function. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62: 985–994.
80. Kuepper R. Morrison P. van Os J. Murray R. Kenis G. Henquet C. (2010) Does dopamine mediate the psychosis-inducing effects of cannabis? A review and integration of findings across disciplines. Schizophr Res 121: 107–117.
81. Kumar S. Kodela S. Detweiler J. Kim K. Detweiler M. (2011) Bupropion-induced psychosis: folklore or a fact? A systematic review of the literature. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 33: 612–617.
82. Lahti A. Holcomb H. Medoff D. Tamminga C. (1995a) Ketamine activates psychosis and alters limbic blood flow in schizophrenia. Neuroreport 6: 869–872.
83. Lahti A. Koffel B. LaPorte D. Tamminga C. (1995b) Subanesthetic doses of ketamine stimulate psychosis in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 13: 9–19.
84. Lange J. Daniel J. Homer K. Reed M. Clapp J. (2010) Salvia divinorum: effects and use among YouTube users. Drug Alcohol Depend 108: 138–140.
85. Langer O. Halldin C. (2002) PET and SPET tracers for mapping the cardiac nervous system. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 29: 416–434.
86. Laruelle M. Abi-Dargham A. van Dyck C. Gil R. D’Souza C. Erdos J. et al. (1996) Single photon emission computerized tomography imaging of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in drug-free schizophrenic subjects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93: 9235–9240.
87. Laruelle M. Abi-Dargham A. van Dyck C. Gil R. D’Souza D. Krystal J. et al. (2000) Dopamine and serotonin transporters in patients with schizophrenia: an imaging study with [(123)I]beta-CIT. Biol Psychiatry 47: 371–379
88. Laruelle M. Kegeles L. Abi-Dargham A. (2003) Glutamate, dopamine, and schizophrenia: from pathophysiology to treatment. Ann NY Acad Sci 1003: 138–158.
89. Law A. Deakin J. (2001) Asymmetrical reductions of hippocampal NMDAR1 glutamate receptor mRNA in the psychoses. Neuroreport 12: 2971–2974.
90. Levin E. Petro A. Caldwell D. (2005) Nicotine and clozapine actions on pre-pulse inhibition deficits caused by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamatergic receptor blockade. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 29: 581–586.
91. Levkovitz Y. Levi U. Braw Y. Cohen H. (2007) Minocycline, a second-generation tetracycline, as a neuroprotective agent in an animal model of schizophrenia. Brain Res 1154: 154–162.
92. Leweke F. Piomelli D. Pahlisch F. Muhl D. Gerth C. Hoyer C. et al. (2012) Cannabidiol enhances anandamide signaling and alleviates psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia. Transl Psychiatry 2: e94.
93. Lewis D. Pierri J. Volk D. Melchitzky D. Woo T. (1999) Altered GABA neurotransmission and prefrontal cortical dysfunction in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 46: 616–626.
94. Liao Y. Tang J. Corlett P. Wang X. Yang M. Chen H. et al. (2011) Reduced dorsal prefrontal gray matter after chronic ketamine use. Biol Psychiatry 69: 42–48.
95. Lieberman J. Dunbar G. Segreti A. Girgis R. Seoane F. Beaver J. et al. (2013) A randomized exploratory trial of an alpha-7 nicotinic receptor agonist (TC-5619) for cognitive enhancement in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 38: 968–975.
96. Lieberman J. Stroup T. McEvoy J. Swartz M. Rosenheck R. Perkins D. et al. (2005) Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 353: 1209–1223.
97. Linn G. O’Keeffe R. Schroeder C. Lifshitz K. Javitt D. (1999) Behavioral effects of chronic phencyclidine in monkeys. Neuroreport 10: 2789–2793.
98. Lodge D. Grace A. (2011) Hippocampal dysregulation of dopamine system function and the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Trends Pharmacol Sci 32: 507–513.
99. MacLean K. Johnson M. Reissig C. Prisinzano T. Griffiths R. (2013) Dose-related effects of salvinorin A in humans: dissociative, hallucinogenic, and memory effects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 226: 381–392.
100. Malhotra A. Pinals D. Adler C. Elman I. Clifton A. Pickar D. et al. (1997) Ketamine-induced exacerbation of psychotic symptoms and cognitive impairment in neuroleptic-free schizophrenics. Neuropsychopharmacology 17: 141–150.
101. Marcotte E. Pearson D. Srivastava L. (2001) Animal models of schizophrenia: a critical review. J Psychiatry Neurosci 26: 395–410.
102. Marona-Lewicka D. Nichols C. Nichols D. (2011) An animal model of schizophrenia based on chronic LSD administration: old idea, new results. Neuropharmacology 61: 503–512.
103. Marsman A. van den Heuvel M. Klomp D. Kahn R. Luijten P. Hulshoff Pol H. (2013) Glutamate in schizophrenia: a focused review and meta-analysis of (1)H-MRS studies. Schizophr Bull 39: 120–129.
104. Meldrum B. (1982) GABA and acute psychoses. Psychol Med 12: 1–5.
105. Meltzer H. (1996) Pre-clinical pharmacology of atypical antipsychotic drugs: a selective review. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 29: 23–31.
106. Meltzer H. (1997) Treatment-resistant schizophrenia - the role of clozapine. Curr Med Res Opin 14: 1–20.
107. Mihalak K. Carroll F. Luetje C. (2006) Varenicline is a partial agonist at alpha4beta2 and a full agonist at alpha7 neuronal nicotinic receptors. Mol Pharmacol 70: 801–805.
108. Minzenberg M. Poole J. Benton C. Vinogradov S. (2004) Association of anticholinergic load with impairment of complex attention and memory in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 161: 116–124.
109. Mirza N. Peters D. Sparks R. (2003) Xanomeline and the antipsychotic potential of muscarinic receptor subtype selective agonists. CNS Drug Rev 9: 159–186.
110. Moghaddam B. Adams B. Verma A. Daly D. (1997) Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: a novel step in the pathway from NMDA receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 17: 2921–2927.
111. Monte A. de Souza G. McIntyre R. Soczynska J. dos Santos J. Cordeiro R. et al. (2013) Prevention and reversal of ketamine-induced schizophrenia related behavior by minocycline in mice: Possible involvement of antioxidant and nitrergic pathways. J Psychopharmacol 27: 1032–1043.
112. Morgan C. Mofeez A. Brandner B. Bromley L. Curran H. (2004) Acute effects of ketamine on memory systems and psychotic symptoms in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology 29: 208–218.
113. Morrison P. Nottage J. Stone J. Bhattacharyya S. Tunstall N. Brenneisen R. et al. (2011) Disruption of frontal theta coherence by Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol is associated with positive psychotic symptoms Neuropsychopharmacology 36: 827–836.
114. Morrison P. Stone J. (2011) Synthetic delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol elicits schizophrenia-like negative symptoms which are distinct from sedation. Clin Psychopharm Clin 26: 77–80.
115. Morrison P. Zois V. McKeown D. Lee T. Holt D. Powell J. et al. (2009) The acute effects of synthetic intravenous Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on psychosis, mood and cognitive functioning Psychol Med 39: 1607–1616.
116. Mosolov S. Potapov A. Ushakov U. (2012) Remission in schizophrenia: results of cross-sectional with 6-month follow-up period and 1-year observational therapeutic studies in an outpatient population. Ann Gen Psychiatry 11: 1-859X-11-1.
117. Muschamp J. Regina M. Hull E. Winter J. Rabin R. (2004) Lysergic acid diethylamide and [-]-2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine increase extracellular glutamate in rat prefrontal cortex. Brain Res 1023: 134–140.
118. Narendran R. Frankle W. Keefe R. Gil R. Martinez D. Slifstein M. et al. (2005) Altered prefrontal dopaminergic function in chronic recreational ketamine users. Am J Psychiatry 162: 2352–2359.
119. Neill J. Barnes S. Cook S. Grayson B. Idris N. McLean S. et al. (2010) Animal models of cognitive dysfunction and negative symptoms of schizophrenia: focus on NMDA receptor antagonism. Pharmacol Ther 128: 419–432.
120. Okugawa G. Tamagaki C. Agartz I. (2007) Frontal and temporal volume size of grey and white matter in patients with schizophrenia: an MRI parcellation study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 257: 304–307.
121. Olney J. Farber N. (1995) Glutamate receptor dysfunction and schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52: 998–1007.
122. Perry E. Perry R. (1995) Acetylcholine and hallucinations: disease-related compared to drug-induced alterations in human consciousness. Brain Cogn 28: 240–258.
123. Pilowsky L. Bressan R. Stone J. Erlandsson K. Mulligan R. Krystal J. et al. (2006) First in vivo evidence of an NMDA receptor deficit in medication-free schizophrenic patients. Mol Psychiatry 11: 118–119.
124. Pistis M. Ferraro L. Pira L. Flore G. Tanganelli S. Gessa G. et al. (2002) Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol decreases extracellular GABA and increases extracellular glutamate and dopamine levels in the rat prefrontal cortex: an in vivo microdialysis study. Brain Res 948: 155–158.
125. Pratt J. Winchester C. Dawson N. Morris B. (2012) Advancing schizophrenia drug discovery: optimizing rodent models to bridge the translational gap. Nat Rev Drug Discov 11: 560–579.
126. Przekop P. Lee T. (2009) Persistent psychosis associated with salvia divinorum use. Am J Psychiatry 166: 832.
127. Quednow B. Kometer M. Geyer M. Vollenweider F. (2012) Psilocybin-induced deficits in automatic and controlled inhibition are attenuated by ketanserin in healthy human volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology 37: 630–640.
128. Raedler T. (2007) Comparison of the in-vivo muscarinic cholinergic receptor availability in patients treated with clozapine and olanzapine. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 10: 275–80.
129. Raedler T. Knable M. Jones D. Urbina R. Gorey J. Lee K. et al. (2003) In vivo determination of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor availability in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 160: 118–127.
130. Ramadan S. Lin A. Stanwell P. (2013) Glutamate and glutamine: a review of in vivo MRS in the human brain. NMR Biomed 26: 1630–1646.
131. Ranganathan M. Schnakenberg A. Skosnik P. Cohen B. Pittman B. Sewell R. et al. (2012) Dose-related behavioral, subjective, endocrine, and psychophysiological effects of the kappa opioid agonist Salvinorin A in humans. Biol Psychiatry 72: 871–879.
132. Realini N. Rubino T. Parolaro D. (2009) Neurobiological alterations at adult age triggered by adolescent exposure to cannabinoids. Pharmacol Res 60: 132–138.
133. Richtand N. Woods S. Berger S. Strakowski S. (2001) D3 dopamine receptor, behavioral sensitization, and psychosis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 25: 427–443.
134. Ripoll N. Bronnec M. Bourin M. (2004) Nicotinic receptors and schizophrenia. Curr Med Res Opin 20: 1057–1074.
135. Rotaru D. Lewis D. Gonzalez-Burgos G. (2012) The role of glutamatergic inputs onto parvalbumin-positive interneurons: relevance for schizophrenia. Rev Neurosci 23: 97–109.
136. Roth B. Hanizavareh S. Blum A. (2004) Serotonin receptors represent highly favorable molecular targets for cognitive enhancement in schizophrenia and other disorders. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 174: 17–24.
137. Rothman D. De Feyter H. de Graaf R. Mason G. Behar K. (2011) 13C MRS studies of neuroenergetics and neurotransmitter cycling in humans. NMR Biomed 24: 943–957.
138. Rowland L. Bustillo J. Mullins P. Jung R. Lenroot R. Landgraf E. et al. (2005) Effects of ketamine on anterior cingulate glutamate metabolism in healthy humans: a 4-T proton MRS study. Am J Psychiatry 162: 394–396.
139. Rubino T. Vigano’ D. Realini N. Guidali C. Braida D. Capurro V. et al. (2008) Chronic delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol during adolescence provokes sex-dependent changes in the emotional profile in adult rats: behavioral and biochemical correlates. Neuropsychopharmacology 33: 2760–2771.
140. Rudolph U. Knoflach F. (2011) Beyond classical benzodiazepines: novel therapeutic potential of GABAA receptor subtypes. Nat Rev Drug Discov 10: 685–697.
141. Schneider M. Koch M. (2003) Chronic pubertal, but not adult chronic cannabinoid treatment impairs sensorimotor gating, recognition memory, and the performance in a progressive ratio task in adult rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 28: 1760–1769.
142. Schwartz T. Sachdeva S. Stahl S. (2012) Glutamate neurocircuitry: theoretical underpinnings in schizophrenia. Front Pharmacol 3: 195.
143. Scruggs J. Schmidt D. Deutch A. (2003) The hallucinogen 1-[2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl]-2-aminopropane (DOI) increases cortical extracellular glutamate levels in rats. Neurosci Lett 346: 137–140.
144. Seeman P. (1987) Dopamine receptors and the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Synapse 1: 133–152.
145. Seeman P. Kapur S. (2000) Schizophrenia: more dopamine, more D2 receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97: 7673–7675.
146. Seeman P. Lee T. (1975) Antipsychotic drugs: direct correlation between clinical potency and presynaptic action on dopamine neurons. Science 188: 1217–1219.
147. Segal D. Mandell A. (1974) Long-term administration of d-amphetamine: progressive augmentation of motor activity and stereotypy. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2: 249–255.
148. Shekhar A. Potter W. Lightfoot J. Lienemann J. Dube S. Mallinckrodt C. et al. (2008) Selective muscarinic receptor agonist xanomeline as a novel treatment approach for schizophrenia. Amer J Psychiatry 165: 1033–1039.
149. Solowij N. Michie P. (2007) Cannabis and cognitive dysfunction: parallels with endophenotypes of schizophrenia? J Psychiatry Neurosci 32: 30–52.
150. Sorce S. Schiavone S. Tucci P. Colaianna M. Jaquet V. Cuomo V. et al. (2010) The NADPH oxidase NOX2 controls glutamate release: a novel mechanism involved in psychosis-like ketamine responses. J Neurosci 30: 11317–11325.
151. Steen R. Mull C. McClure R. Hamer R. Lieberman J. (2006) Brain volume in first-episode schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis of magnetic resonance imaging studies. Br J Psychiatry 188: 510–518.
152. Stefani M. Moghaddam B. (2005) Transient N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor blockade in early development causes lasting cognitive deficits relevant to schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 57: 433–436.
153. Stefansson H. Rujescu D. Cichon S. Pietilainen O. Ingason A. Steinberg S. et al. (2008) Large recurrent microdeletions associated with schizophrenia. Nature 455: 232–236.
154. Steinpreis R. Sokolowski J. Papanikolaou A. Salamone J. (1994) The effects of haloperidol and clozapine on PCP- and amphetamine-induced suppression of social behavior in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 47: 579–585.
155. Stone J. Dietrich C. Edden R. Mehta M. De Simoni S. Reed L. et al. (2012a) Ketamine effects on brain GABA and glutamate levels with 1H-MRS: relationship to ketamine-induced psychopathology. Mol Psychiatry 17: 664–665.
156. Stone J. Erlandsson K. Arstad E. Squassante L. Teneggi V. Bressan R. et al. (2008) Relationship between ketamine-induced psychotic symptoms and NMDA receptor occupancy: a [(123)I]CNS-1261 SPET study. Psychopharmacology 197: 401–408.
157. Stone J. Fisher H. Major B. Chisholm B. Woolley J. Lawrence J. et al. (2014a) Cannabis use and first-episode psychosis: relationship with manic and psychotic symptoms, and with age at presentation. Psychol Med 44: 499–506.
158. Stone J. Morrison P. Brugger S. Nottage J. Bhattacharyya S. Sumich A. et al. (2012b) Communication breakdown: delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol effects on pre-speech neural coherence. Mol Psychiatry 17: 568–569.
159. Stone J. Pepper F. Fam J. Furby H. Hughes E. Morgan C. et al. (2014b) Glutamate, N-acetyl aspartate and psychotic symptoms in chronic ketamine users. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2431: 2107–2116.
160. Stone J. Raffin M. Morrison P. McGuire P. (2010) Review: The biological basis of antipsychotic response in schizophrenia J Psychopharmacol 24: 953–964.
161. Strassman R. Qualls C. Uhlenhuth E. Kellner R. (1994) Dose-response study of N, N-dimethyltryptamine in humans. II. Subjective effects and preliminary results of a new rating scale. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51: 98–108.
162. Szulc A. Konarzewska B. Galinska-Skok B. Lazarczyk J. Waszkiewicz N. Tarasow E. et al. (2013) Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy measures related to short-term symptomatic outcome in chronic schizophrenia. Neurosci Lett 547: 37–41.
163. Tejeda H. Shippenberg T. Henriksson R. (2012) The dynorphin/kappa-opioid receptor system and its role in psychiatric disorders. Cell Mol Life Sci 69: 857–896.
164. Tenn C. Fletcher P. Kapur S. (2003) Amphetamine-sensitized animals show a sensorimotor gating and neurochemical abnormality similar to that of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 64: 103–114.
165. Thomas A. Baillie G. Phillips A. Razdan R. Ross R. Pertwee R. (2007) Cannabidiol displays unexpectedly high potency as an antagonist of CB1 and CB2 receptor agonists in vitro. Br J Pharmacol 150: 613–623.
166. Tsai G. Coyle J. (2002) Glutamatergic mechanisms in schizophrenia. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 42: 165–179.
167. Uehara T. Sumiyoshi T. Seo T. Matsuoka T. Itoh H. Suzuki M. et al. (2010) Neonatal exposure to MK-801, an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, enhances methamphetamine-induced locomotion and disrupts sensorimotor gating in pre- and postpubertal rats. Brain Res 1352: 223–230.
168. Ujike H. (2002) Stimulant-induced psychosis and schizophrenia: the role of sensitization. Curr Psychiatry Rep 4: 177–184.
169. Vardy M. Kay S. (1983) LSD psychosis or LSD-induced schizophrenia? A multimethod inquiry. Arch Gen Psychiatry 40: 877–883.
170. Verrico C. Liu S. Bitler E. Gu H. Sampson A. Bradberry C. et al. (2012) Delay- and dose-dependent effects of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol administration on spatial and object working memory tasks in adolescent rhesus monkeys. Neuropsychopharmacology 37: 1357–1366.
171. Vollenweider F. Geyer M. (2001) A systems model of altered consciousness: integrating natural and drug-induced psychoses. Brain Res Bull 56: 495–507.
172. Wang C. Johnson K. (2005) Differential effects of acute and subchronic administration on phencyclidine-induced neurodegeneration in the perinatal rat. J Neurosci Res 81: 284–292.
173. Wang M. Pei L. Fletcher P. Kapur S. Seeman P. Liu F. (2010) Schizophrenia, amphetamine-induced sensitized state and acute amphetamine exposure all show a common alteration: increased dopamine D2 receptor dimerization. Mol Brain 3: 25-6606-3-25.
174. Williams J. McGuffin P. Nothen M. Owen M. (1997) Meta-analysis of association between the 5-HT2a receptor T102C polymorphism and schizophrenia. EMASS Collaborative Group. European Multicentre Association Study of Schizophrenia. Lancet 349: 1221.
175. Wolkin A. Sanfilipo M. Angrist B. Duncan E. Wieland S. Wolf A. et al. (1994) Acute d-amphetamine challenge in schizophrenia: effects on cerebral glucose utilization and clinical symptomatology. Biol Psychiatry 36: 317–325.
176. Yamamoto S. Yoshimura M. Shin M. Wakita M. Nonaka K. Akaike N. (2011) GABA(A) receptor-mediated presynaptic inhibition on glutamatergic transmission. Brain Res Bull 84: 22–30.
177. Zhang L. Shirayama Y. Iyo M. Hashimoto K. (2007) Minocycline attenuates hyperlocomotion and prepulse inhibition deficits in mice after administration of the NMDA receptor antagonist dizocilpine Neuropsychopharmacology 32: 2004–2010.