The "obama effect"? Priming contemporary racial milestones increases implicit racial bias among whites

Social Cognition

Volumn 34, Issue 6, 2016, Pages 544-558

  Skinner, Allison L ^a   Cheadle, Jacob E ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA LINCOLN   (United States)

Author keywords

Group threat; Implicit bias; Internal motivation to respond without prejudice; Obama; Racial prejudice

Indexed keywords

BLACK PERSON; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; ELECTION; EUROPEAN AMERICAN; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MOTIVATION; RACISM; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL;

EID: 84994885780     PISSN: 0278016X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1521/soco.2016.34.6.544     Document Type: Review

References (47)

1. Bernstein, M. J., Young, S. G., & Claypool, H. M. (2010). Is Obama's win a gain for Blacks?: Changes in implicit racial prejudice following the 2008 election. Social Psychology, 41, 147-151. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000021.
2. Bjornstrom, E. E. S., Kaufman, R. L., Peterson, R. D., & Slater, M. D. (2011). Race and ethnic representations of lawbreakers and victims in crime news: A national study of television coverage. Social Problems, 57(2), 269-293. doi:10.1525/sp.2010.57.2.269.
3. Blalock, H. M. (1967). Toward a theory of minority- group relations. New York: Capricorn Books.
4. Blumer, H. (1958). Race prejudice as a sense of group position. Pacific Sociological Review, 1, 3-7.
5. Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon's Mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 3-5. doi:10.1177/1745691610393980.
6. Bump, P. (2015, January 5). The new Congress is 80 percent White, 80 percent male and 92 percent Christian. The Washington Post. Retrieved June 2, 2015 from http://www.washingtonpost.com.
7. Cho, J. C., & Knowles, E. D. (2013). I'm like you and you're like me: Social projection and self-stereotyping both help explain self-other correspondence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104, 444-456. doi:10.1037/a0031017.
8. Columb, C., & Plant, E. A. (2011). Revisiting the Obama effect: Exposure to Obama reduces implicit prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 499-501. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.11.012.
9. Columb, C., & Plant, E. A. (2016). The Obama effect six years later: The effect of exposure to Obama on implicit anti-Black evaluative bias and implicit racial stereotyping. Social Cognition, 34(6), 523- 543.
10. Craig, M. A., & Richeson, J. A. (2014). More diverse yet less tolerant? How the increasingly diverse racial landscape affects White Americans' racial attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 750-761. doi:10.1177/0146167214524993.
11. Curran, P. J., Lee, T., Howard, A. L., Lane, S., & MacCallum, R. (2012). Disaggregating within-person and between-person effects in multilevel and structural equation growth models. In J. R. Harring & G. R. Hancock (Eds.), Advances in longitudinal methods in the social and behavioral sciences (Vol. 11, pp. 217-253). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
12. D'Alessio, S. J., Stolzenberg, L., & Eitle, D. (2002). The effect of racial threat on interracial and intraracial crimes. Social Science Research, 31, 392-408. doi:10.1016/S0049-089X(02)00008-X.
13. Danbold, F., & Huo, Y. J. (2015). No longer "all- American"? Whites' defensive reactions to their numerical decline. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 210-218. doi:10.1177/1948550614546355.
14. Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 800-814. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.800.
15. De Houwer, J., Beckers, T., & Moors, A. (2007). Novel attitudes can be faked on the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(6), 972-978. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.10.007.
16. Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., Amodio, D. M., Harmon- Jones, E., & Vance, S. L. (2002). The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(5), 835-848. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.5.835.
17. Dunham, Y., Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2006). From American city to Japanese village: A cross-cultural investigation of implicit race attitudes. Child Development, 77, 1268-1281. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00933.x.
18. Edmonds, R., Guskin, E., Mitchell, A., & Jurkowitz, M. (2013, May 7). The state of the news media 2013. The Pew Research Center's Project for Excellence in Journalism: An Annual Report on American journalism. Retrieved June 7, 2015 from http://www.stateofthemedia.org.
19. Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., & Rust, M. C. (1993). The common ingroup identity model: Recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1-26). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
20. Gonsalkorale, K., Sherman, J. W., Allen, T. J., Klauer, K. C., & Amodio, D. M. (2011). Accounting for successful control of implicit racial bias: The roles of association activation, response monitoring, and overcoming bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(11), 1534-1545. doi:10.1177/0146167211414064.
21. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test (IAT). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464- 1480.
22. Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test (IAT): I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197- 216. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197.
23. Hausmann, L., & Ryan, C. (2004). Effects of external and internal motivation to respond without prejudice on implicit prejudice: The mediating role of efforts to control prejudiced responses. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 26(2), 215-225. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2602&3-8.
24. Howard, C. (2014, November 5). Putin vs. Obama: The world's most powerful people in 2014. Forbes. Retrieved June 2, 2015 from http://www.forbes.com.
25. Judd, C. M., Westfall, J., & Kenny, D. A. (2012). Treating stimuli as a random factor in social psychology: A new and comprehensive solution to a pervasive but largely ignored problem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 54-69. doi:10.1037/a0028347.
26. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration web site. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(1), 101-115. doi:10.1037//1089-2699.6.1.101.
27. Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., et al. (2007). Pervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes. European Review of Social Psychology, 18, 36-88.
28. Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (1998). Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 811-832.
29. Plant, E. A., Devine, P. G., Cox, W. T. L., Columb, C., Miller, S. L., Goplen, J., & Peruche, B. M. (2009). The Obama effect: Decreasing implicit prejudice and stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 961-964. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.018.
30. Pontin, J. (2007, March 25). Artificial intelligence: With help from the humans. The New York Times. Retrieved February 1, 2013 from http://www.nytimes.com.
31. Quillian, L. (1995). Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat: Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial prejudice in Europe. American Sociological Review, 60, 586-611. doi:10.2307/2096296.
32. Quillian, L. (1996). Group threat and regional change in attitudes toward African- Americans. American Journal of Sociology, 102, 816-860. doi:10.1086/230998.
33. Rae, J. R., Newheiser, A. K., & Olson, K. R. (2015). Exposure to racial out-groups and implicit race bias in the United States. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(5), 535-543. doi:10.1177/1948550614567357.
34. Ramasubramanian, S. (2011). The impact of stereotypical versus counterstereotypical media exemplars on racial attitudes, causal attributions, and support for affirmative action. Communication Research, 38(4), 497-516. doi:10.1177/0093650210384854.
35. Riek, B. M., Mania, E. W., & Gaertner, S. L. (2006). Intergroup threat and outgroup attitudes: A meta-Analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 336-353. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004-4.
36. Schaller, M., & Abeysinghe, A. M. N. D. (2006). Geographical frame of reference and dangerous intergroup attitudes: A double-minority study in Sri Lanka. Political Psychology, 27(4), 615-631. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2006.00521.x.
37. Schmidt, K., & Axt, J. (2016). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward African Americans and Barack Obama did not sub stantively change during Obama's presidency. Social Cognition, 34(6), 559-588.
38. Schmidt, K., & Nosek, B. A. (2010). Implicit (and explicit) racial attitudes barely changed during Barack Obama's presidential campaign and early presidency. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 308- 314. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.12.003.
39. Scroggins, W. A., Mackie, D. M., Allen, T. J., & Sherman, J. W. (2016). Reducing prejudice with labels: Shared group memberships attenuate implicit bias and expand implicit group boundaries. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(2), 219- 229. doi:10.1177/0146167215621048.
40. Siegel, E. F., Dougherty, M. R., & Huber, D. E. (2012). Manipulating the role of cognitive control while taking the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 1057- 1068. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.04.011.
41. Skinner, A. L., & Hudac, C. M. (2017). "Yuck, you disgust me!" Affective bias against interracial couples. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 68, 68-77. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.05.008.
42. Stephan, W. G., Ybarra, O., & Morrison, K. R. (2009). Intergroup threat theory. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (pp. 43-60). New York: Psychology Press.
43. Tukey, J. W. (1977). Exploratory data analysis. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
44. Van Bavel, J. J., & Cunningham, W. A. (2009). Self-categorization with a novel mixedrace group moderates automatic social and racial biases. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 321-335. doi:10.1177/0146167208327743.
45. Van Bavel, J. J., Packer, D. J., Haas, I. J., & Cunningham, W. A. (2012). The importance of moral construal: Moral versus nonmoral construal elicits faster, more extreme, universal evaluations of the same actions. PLoS ONE, 7. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048693.
46. Wallaert, M., Ward, A., & Mann, T. (2010). Explicit control of implicit responses: Simple directive can alter IAT performance. Social Psychology, 41(3), 152-157. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000022.Explicit.
47. Zayas, V., Greenwald, A. G., & Osterhout, L. (2011). Unintentional covert motor activations predict behavioral effects: Multilevel modeling of trial-level electrophysiological motor activations. Psychophy, 48, 208-217. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01055.x.