A Role for the X Chromosome in Sex Differences in Variability in General Intelligence?

Perspectives on Psychological Science

Volumn 4, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 598-611

  Johnson, Wendy ^a   Deary, Ian J ^b   Carothers, Andrew ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84993815499     PISSN: 17456916     EISSN: 17456924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01168.x     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Adolphs R. (2003). Investigating the cognitive neuroscience of social behavior. Neuropsychologia, 41, 119–126.
2. Anastasi A. (1972). Four hypotheses with a dearth of data: Response to Lehrke's “A theory of X-linkage of major intellectual traits.”Journal of Mental Deficiency, 76, 620–622.
3. Aoki K. (1986). A stochastic model of gene-culture evolution suggested by the “cultural historical hypothesis” for the volution of adult lactose absorption in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 83, 2929–2933.
4. Arden R. Plomin R. (2006). Sex differences in variance of intelligence across childhood. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 39–48.
5. Baron-Cohen S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Science, 6, 248–254.
6. Baumeister R.F. (2007, August). Is there anything good about men? Invited address presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco.
7. Betzig L. Borgerhoff D. Mulder M. Turke P. (1988). Human reproductive behavior: A Darwinian perspective. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
8. Bouchard T.J. McGue M. (1981). Familial studies of intelligence: A review. Science, 212, 1055–1059.
9. Bowen C. Swim J.K. Jacobs R.R. (2000). Evaluating gender biases on actual job performance of real people: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 2194–2215.
10. Brown C.J. Greally J.M. (2004). A stain upon the silence: Genes escaping X inactivation. Trends in Genetics, 19, 432–438.
11. Burt C. (1957). The distribution of intelligence. General Psychology, 48, 161–175.
12. Burt C. (1963). Is intelligence normally distributed? British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 16, 175–190.
13. Butcher L.M. Davis O.S.P. Craig I.W. Plomin R. (2008). Genome-wide quantitative trait locus association scan of general cognitive ability using pooled DNA and 500K single nucleotide polymorphism microarrays. Genes, Brains, and Behavior, 7, 435–446.
14. Carlborg O. Haley C.S. (2004). Epistasis: Too often neglected in complex trait studies? Nature Reviews Genetics, 5, 618–625.
15. Cavalli-Sforza L.L. Feldman M.W. (1981). Cultural tTransmission and evolution: A quantitative approach. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
16. Chagnons N.A. Irons W. (1979). Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.
17. Chelly J. Khelfaoui M. Francis F. Cherif B. Bienvenu T. (2006). Genetics and pathophysiology of mental retardation. European Journal of Human Genetics, 14, 701–713.
18. Davison H.K. Burke M.J. (2000). Sex discrimination in simulated employment contexts: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56, 225–248.
19. Deary I.J. Irwing P. Der G. Bates T.C. (2007). Brother-sister differences in the g factor in intelligence: Analysis of full, opposite-sex siblings from the NLSY1979. Intelligence, 35, 451–456.
20. Deary I.J. Spinath F.M. Bates T.C. (2006). Genetics of intelligence. European Journal of Human Genetics, 14, 690–700.
21. Deaux K. (1976). The behavior of women and men. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
22. DeLisi L.E. Maurizio A.M. Svetina C. Ardekani B. Szulc K. Neurenberg J. et al., (2005). Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY) as a genetic model for psychotic disorders. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 135B, 15–23.
23. Dolan C.V. Colom R. Abad F.J. Wicherts J.M. Hessen D.J. van der Sluis S. (2006). Multi-group covariance and mean structure modeling of the relationship between the WAIS-III common factors and sex and educational attainment in Spain. Intelligence, 34, 193–210.
24. Dolinoy D.C. Weidman J.R. Jirtle R.L. (2006). Epigenetic gene regulation: Linking early developmental environment to adult disease. Reproductive Toxicology, 23, 297–307.
25. Dorus S. Vallender E.J. Evans P.D. Anderson J.R. Gilbert S.L. Mahowald M. et al., (2004). Accelerated evolution of nervous system genes in the origin of homo sapiens. Cell, 119, 1027–1040.
26. Durham D.H. (1979). Toward a coevolutionary thoery of human evolution and culture. In Ed. Chagnon N.A. Irons W.D. (Eds.), Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.
27. Feingold A. (1992). Sex differences in variability in intellectual abilities: A new look at an old controversy. Review of Educational Research, 62, 61–84.
28. Feingold A. (1994). Gender differences in variability in intellectual abilities: A cross-cultural perspective. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 30, 81–92.
29. Feingold A. (1995). The additive effects of differences in central tendency and variability are important in comparisons between groups. American Psychologist, 50, 5–13.
30. Geary D.C. (1998). Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
31. Geary D.C. (2005). The origin of mind: Evolution of brain, cognition, and general intelligence. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
32. Gecz J. Mulley J. (2000). Genes for cognitive function: Developments on the X. Genome Research, 10, 157–163.
33. Gerhart J. Kirschner M. (2007). The theory of facilitated variation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 104, 8582–8589.
34. Good C.D. Lawrence K. Thomas N.S. Price C.J. Ashburner J. Friston K.J. et al., (2001). Dosage sensitive X-linked locus influences the development of amygdala and orbito-frontal cortex and fear recognition in humans. Brain, 126, 2431–2446.
35. Gottesman I.I. Gould T.D. (2003). The endophenotype concept in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 360, 636–645.
36. Gottfredson L.S. (1981). Circumspection and compromise: A developmental theory of occupational aspirations. Journal of Consulting Psychology Monograph, 28, 545–579.
37. Gottfredson L.S. (1997). Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence, 24, 79–132.
38. Halpern D.F. (2000). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
39. Halpern D.F. Benbow C.P. Geary D.C. Gur R.C. Hyde J.S. Gernsbacher M.A. (2007). The science of sex differences in science and mathematics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 8, 1–51.
40. Heatherington L. Daubman K.A. Bates C. Ahn A. Brown H. Preston C. (1993). Two investigations of female modesty in achievement situations. Sex Roles, 29, 739–754.
41. Hedges L.V. Nowell A. (1995). Sex differences in mental test scores, variability, and numbers of high-scoring individuals. Science, 269, 41–45.
42. Hermans D.F. Williams L.M. Lazzaro I. Whitmont S. Melkonian D. Gordon E. (2004). Sex differences in adult ADHD: A double dissociation in brain activity and autonomic arousal. Biological Psychology, 66, 221–233.
43. Hill W.G. Goddard M.E. Visscher P.M. (2008). Data and theory point to mainly additive genetic variance for complex traits. Public Library of Science: Genetics, 4, 1–10.
44. Horn J.L. Knapp J.R. (1973). On the subjective character of the empirical base of Guilford's structure of intellect model. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 195–196.
45. Horn J.L. Knapp J.R. (1974). Thirty wrongs do not make a right. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 502–504.
46. Humphreys L.G. (1988). Sex-differences in variability may be more important than sex differences in means. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11, 195–196.
47. Hunt E.B. (2001). Multiple views of multiple intelligence. Contemporary Psychology, 46, 5–7.
48. Hurst L.D. (2001). Sex and the X. Nature, 411, 149–150.
49. Ilai D. Willerman L. (1989). Sex differences in WAIS-R item performance. Intelligence, 13, 225–234.
50. Inlow J.K. Restifo R.L. (2004). Molecular and comparative genetics of mental retardation. Genetics, 166, 835–881.
51. Jensen A. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger.
52. Johnson W. (2007). Genetic and environmental influences on behavior: Capturing all the interplay. Psychological Review, 114, 423–440.
53. Johnson W. Bouchard T.J. Jr. (2005). The structure of human intelligence: It's verbal, perceptual, and image rotation (VPR), not fluid and crystallized. Intelligence, 35, 393–416.
54. Johnson W. Bouchard T.J. Jr. (2007 a). Sex differences in mental abilities: g masks the differences on which they lie. Intelligence, 35, 23–39.
55. Johnson W. Bouchard T.J. Jr. (2007 b). Sex differences in mental ability: A proposed means to link them to brain structure and function. Intelligence, 35, 197–209.
56. Johnson W. Carothers A. Deary I.J. (2008). Sex differences in variability in general intelligence: A new look at the old question. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 3, 518–531.
57. Khaitovich P. Hellmann I. Enard W. Nowick K. Leinweber M. Franz H. et al., (2005). Parallel patterns of evolution in the genomes and transcriptomes of humans and chimpanzees. Science, 309, 1850–1854.
58. Kirschner M.W. Gerhart J.C. (2005). The plausibility of life: Resolving Darwin's dilemma. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
59. Laland K.N. Kumm J. Horn J.V. Feldman M.W. (1995). A gene-culture model of human handedness. Behavior Genetics, 25, 433–445.
60. Laumonnier F. Cuthbert P.C. Grant S.G. (2007). The role of neuronal complexes in human X-linked brain diseases. American Journal of Human Genetics, 80, 205–220.
61. Lehrke R. (1972). A theory of X-linkage of major intellectual traits. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 76, 611–619.
62. Lim T.K. (1994). Gender-related differences in intelligence: Application of confirmatory factor analysis. Intelligence, 19, 179–192.
63. Lindenfors P. Tullberg B.S. (1998). Phylogenetic analyses of primate size evolution: The consequences of sexual selection. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 64, 413–447.
64. Lohman D. Lakin J. (2008). Consistencies in sex differences on the Cognitive Abilities Test across countries, grades, and cohorts. Manuscript submitted for publication.
65. Lohman D.F. Thorndike R.L. Hagen E.P. Smith P. Fernandes C. Strand S. (2001). Cognitive Abilities Test (3rd ed.). London: Nelson.
66. Lubinski D. Benbow C.P. (1992). Gender differences in abilities and preferences among the gifted: Implications for the math/science pipeline. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, 61–66.
67. Lubinski D. Benbow C.P. (1995). An opportunity for empiricism: Review of Gardner's “Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice.”Contemporary Psychology, 46, 935–938.
68. Lubinski D. Benbow C.P. (2006). Study of mathematically precocious youth after 35 years: Uncovering antecedents for the development of math-science expertise. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 316–345.
69. Lubinski D. Benbow C.P. (2007). Sex differences in personal attributes for the development of math-science expertise. In Ed. Ceci S.J. Williams W.M. Why aren't more women in science (pp. 79–100). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
70. Lyon M.F. (1962). Sex chromatin and gene action in the mammalian X-chromosome. American Journal of Human Genetics, 14, 135–148.
71. Mackintosh N.J. Bennett E.S. (2005). What do Raven's matrices measure? An analysis in terms of sex differences. Intelligence, 33, 663–674.
72. Mau W. Lynn R. (2001). Gender differences on the Scholastic Aptitude Test, the American College Test, and college grades. Educational Psychology, 21, 133–136.
73. McKusick V.A. (1966). Mendelian inheritance in man. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
74. McNemar Q. Terman L.M. (1936). Sex differences in variational tendency. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 18, 1–66.
75. Migaud M. Charlesworth P. Dempster M. Webster L.C. Watabe A.M. Makhinson M. et al., (1998). Enhanced long-term potentiation and impaired learning in mice with mutant post-synaptic density-95 protein. Nature, 396, 433–439.
76. Miller G. (2000). The mating mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature. New York: Random House.
77. Moore G. (1903). Principia ethica. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
78. Morton N.E. (1992). Genes for intelligence on the X chromosome. Journal of Medical Genetics, 29, 71.
79. Nance W.E. Engel E. (1972). One X and four hypotheses: Response to Lehrke's “A theory of X linkage of major intellectual traits.”Journal of Mental Deficiency, 76, 623–625.
80. Pennisi E. (2005). Mutterings from the silenced X chromosome. Science, 246, 1708.
81. Raymond F. (2006). X-linked mental retardation: A clinical guide. Journal of Medical Genetics, 43, 193–200.
82. Roberts J.A.F. (1945). On the difference between the sexes in dispersion of intelligence. British Medical Journal, 1, 127–138.
83. Robinson N.M. Zigler E. Gallagher J.J. (2000). Two tails of the normal curve: Similarities and differences in the study of mental retardation and giftedness. American Psychologist, 55, 1413–1424.
84. Roeleveld N. Zeilheis G.A. Gabreels F. (1997). The prevalence of mental retardation: A critical review of recent literature. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 39, 125–132.
85. Ropers H.H. Hamel B.C. (2005). X-linked mental retardation. Nature Reviews Genetics, 6, 46–57.
86. Ross M.T. (2005). The DNA sequence of the human X chromosome. Nature, 434, 325–337.
87. Ross M.T. Grafham D.V. Coffey A.J. Scherer S. McLay K. Muzny D. et al., (2005). The DNA sequence of the human X chromosome. Nature, 434, 325–337.
88. Rutter M. Caspi A. Fergusson D. Horwood L.J. Goodman R. Maughan B. et al., (2004). Sex differences in developmental reading disability: New findings from four epidemiological studies. Journal of the American Medican Association, 291, 2007–2012.
89. Scottish Council for Research in Education. (1933). The intelligence of Scottish children: A national survey of an age group. London: University of London Press.
90. Scottish Council for Research in Education. (1949). The trend of Scottish intelligence. London: University of London Press.
91. Simonoff E. Pickles A. Chadwick O. Gringras P. Wood N. Higgins S. et al., (2006). The Croyden Assessment of Learning Study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 828–839.
92. Skuse D.H. (2000). Imprinting, the X-chromosome, and the male brain: Explaining sex differences in the liability to autism. Pediatric Research, 47, 9–17.
93. Skuse D.H. (2005). X-linked genes and mental functioning. Human Molecular Genetics, 14, R27–R32.
94. Skuse D.H. (2006). Sexual dimorphism in brain and behaviour: The role of X-linked genes. European Journal of Endocrinology, 155, S99–S106.
95. Skuse D.H. James R.S. Bishop D.V. Coppin B. Dalton P. Aamodt-Leeper G. et al., (1997). Evidence from Turner's syndrome of an imprinted X-linked locus affecting cognitve function. Nature, 387, 705–708.
96. Snow R.E. Corno L. Jackson D.III. (1996). Individual differences in affective and conative functions. In Ed. Berliner D.C. Calfee R.C. (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 243–310). New York: Macmillan.
97. Snow R.E. Lohman D.F. (1989). Implication of cognitive psychology for educational measurement. In Ed. Linn R.L. (Ed.), Educational measurement (3rd ed., pp. 263–332). New York: Macmillan.
98. Strand S. Deary I.J. Smith P. (2006). Sex differences in Cognitive Abilities Test Scores: A UK national picture. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 463–480.
99. Swim J. Borgida E. Muruyama G. Myers D.G. (1989). Joan McKay vs. John McKay: Do gender stereotypes bias evaluations? Psychological Bulletin, 105, 409–429.
100. Temple C.M. (2002). Oral fluency and narrative production in children with Turner's syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 40, 1419–1427.
101. Turner G. (1996). Intelligence and the X chromosome. Lancet, 347, 1814–1815.
102. Turner G. Partington M.W. (1991). Genes for intelligence on the X chromosome. Journal of Medical Genetics, 28, 429.
103. Tycko B. Morison I.M. (2002). Physiological functions of imprinted genes. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 192, 245–258.
104. Vandenberg S.G. (1972). Assortative mating, or who marries whom. Behavior Genetics, 2, 127–157.
105. Vawter M.P. Harvey P.D. DeLisi L.E. (2007). Dysregulation of X-linked gene expression in Klinefelter's syndrome and association with verbal cognition. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B, 144B, 728–734.
106. Vernon P.E. (1964). The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen.
107. West P.M. Packer C. (2002). Sexual selection, temperature, and the lion's mane. Science, 297, 1339–1343.
108. Wilkins J.F. (2005). Genomic imprinting and methylation: Epigenetic canalization and conflict. Trends in Genetics, 21, 356–365.
109. Wilkinson L.S. Davies W. Isles A.R. (2007). Genomic imprinting effects on brain development and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8, 832–843.
110. Yang X. Schadt E.E. Wang S. Wang H. Arnold A.P. Ingram-Drake L. et al., (2006). Tissue-specific expression and regulation of sexually dimorphic genes in mice. Genome Research, 16, 995–1004.
111. Zechner U. Wilda M. Kehrer-Sawatzki H. Vogel W. Fundele R. Hameister H. (2001). A high density of X-linked genes for cognitive ability: A runaway process shaping human evolution. Trends in Genetics, 17, 697–701.