Anxiety-linked attentional bias and its modification: Illustrating the importance of distinguishing processes and procedures in experimental psychopathology research

Behaviour Research and Therapy

Volumn 86, Issue , 2016, Pages 68-86

  MacLeod, Colin ^a   Grafton, Ben ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

Anxiety; Attentional bias; Attentional bias modification; Experimental psychopathology; Procedures; Process

Indexed keywords

ALERTNESS; ANXIETY; ANXIETY ASSESSMENT; ARTICLE; ATTENTIONAL BIAS; ATTENTIONAL BIAS MODIFICATION; BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION; DEPRESSION; EXPERIMENTAL MENTAL DISEASE; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PANIC; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; SOCIAL PHOBIA; STROOP TEST; THREAT; TRANSCRANIAL DIRECT CURRENT STIMULATION; BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; MENTAL DISEASE; PROCEDURES; PSYCHOLOGY;

ANXIETY; ATTENTIONAL BIAS; BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; HUMANS; PSYCHOPATHOLOGY;

EID: 84992208879     PISSN: 00057967     EISSN: 1873622X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2016.07.005     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. Amir, N., Beard, C., Burns, M., Bomyea, J., Attention modification program in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 118 (2009), 28–33.
2. Amir, N., Beard, C., Taylor, C.T., Klumpp, H., Elias, J., Burns, M., et al. Attention training in individuals with generalized social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 77 (2009), 961–973.
3. Amir, N., Elias, J., Klumpp, H., Przeworski, A., Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: Facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat?. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 1325–1335.
4. Amir, N., Weber, G., Beard, C., Bomyea, J., Taylor, C.T., The effect of a single-session attention modification program on response to a public-speaking challenge in socially anxious individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 117 (2008), 860–868.
5. Asmundson, G.J.G., Stein, M.B., Selective processing of social threat in patients with generalized social phobia: Evaluation using a dot-probe paradigm. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 8 (1994), 107–117.
6. Bar-Haim, Y., Research review: Attention bias modification (ABM): A novel treatment for anxiety disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 51 (2010), 859–870.
7. Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Glickman, S., Attentional bias in anxiety: A behavioral and ERP study. Brain and Cognition 59 (2005), 11–22.
8. Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., van IJzendoorn, M.H., Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin 133 (2007), 1–24.
9. Bar-Haim, Y., Morag, I., Glickman, S., Training anxious children to disengage attention from threat: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 52 (2011), 861–869.
10. Basanovic, J., MacLeod, C., Does anxiety-linked attentional bias to threatening information reflect bias in the setting of attentional goals, or bias in the execution of attentional goals?. Cognition and Emotion, 2016, 1–14.
11. Beard, C., Sawyer, A.T., Hofmann, S.G., Efficacy of attention bias modification using threat and appetitive stimuli: A meta-analytic review. Behavior Therapy 43 (2012), 724–740.
12. Bechor, M., Pettit, J.W., Silverman, W.K., Bar-Haim, Y., Abend, R., Pine, D.S., et al. Attention bias modification treatment for children with anxiety disorders who do not respond to cognitive behavioral therapy: A case series. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 28 (2014), 154–159.
13. Beck, A.T., Emery, G., Greenberg, R., Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. 1985, Basic Books, New York.
14. Beck, J.G., Stanley, M.A., Averill, P.M., Baldwin, L.E., Deagle, E.A., Attention and memory for threat in panic disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 30 (1992), 619–629.
15. Bernstein, A., Zvielli, A., Attention feedback awareness and control training (A-FACT): Experimental test of a novel intervention paradigm targeting attentional bias. Behaviour Research and Therapy 55 (2014), 18–26.
16. Boettcher, J., Berger, T., Renneberg, B., Internet-based attention training for social anxiety: A randomized controlled trial. Cognitive Therapy and Research 36 (2012), 522–536.
17. Boettcher, J., Hasselrot, J., Sund, E., Andersson, G., Carlbring, P., Combining attention training with internet-based cognitive-behavioral self-help for social anxiety: A randomised controlled trial. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 43 (2014), 34–48.
18. Boettcher, J., Leek, L., Matson, L., Holmes, E.A., Browning, M., MacLeod, C., et al. Internet-based attention bias modification for social anxiety: A randomised controlled comparison of training towards negative and training towards positive cues. PLoS ONE, 8, 2013, e71760.
19. Boring, E., Intelligence as the tests test it. New Republic 36 (1923), 35–37.
20. Bower, G.H., Mood and memory. American Psychologist 36 (1981), 129–148.
21. Bradley, B.P., Mogg, K., Lee, S.C., Attentional biases for negative information in induced and naturally occurring dysphoria. Behaviour Research and Therapy 35 (1997), 911–927.
22. Bradley, B.P., Mogg, K., White, J., Groom, C., Bono, J., Attentional bias for emotional faces in generalized anxiety disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 38 (1999), 267–278.
23. Britton, J.C., Bar-Haim, Y., Clementi, M.A., Sankin, L.S., Chen, G., Shechner, T., et al. Training-associated changes and stability of attention bias in youth: Implications for attention bias modification treatment for pediatric anxiety. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 4 (2013), 52–64.
24. Broadbent, D., Broadbent, M., Anxiety and attentional bias: State and trait. Cognition & Emotion 2 (1988), 165–183.
25. Bryant, R.A., Harvey, A.G., Processing threatening information in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104 (1995), 537–541.
26. Bryant, R.A., Harvey, A.G., Attentional bias in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress 10 (1997), 635–644.
27. Buckner, J.D., Maner, J.K., Schmidt, N.B., Difficulty disengaging attention from social threat in social anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research 34 (2010), 99–105.
28. Bunnell, B.E., Beidel, D.C., Mesa, F., A randomized trial of attention training for generalized social phobia: Does attention training change social behavior?. Behavior Therapy 4 (2013), 662–673.
29. Carlbring, P., Apelstrand, M., Sehlin, H., Amir, N., Rousseau, A., Hofmann, S., et al. Internet-delivered attention bias modification training in individuals with social anxiety disorder—A double blind randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry, 12, 2012, 66.
30. Clarke, P.J.F., Browning, M., Hammond, G., Notebaert, L., MacLeod, C., The causal role of the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex in the modification of attentional bias: Evidence from transcranial direct current stimulation. Biological Psychiatry 76 (2014), 946–952.
31. Clarke, P.J.F., MacLeod, C., Guastella, A.J., Assessing the role of spatial engagement and disengagement of attention in anxiety-linked attentional bias: A critique of current paradigms and suggestions for future research directions. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 2012, 1–19.
32. Cox, W.M., Fadardi, J.S., Intriligator, J.M., Klinger, E., Attentional bias modification for addictive behaviors: Clinical implications. CNS Spectrums 19 (2014), 215–224.
33. Cristea, I., Kok, R., Cuijpers, P., Efficacy of cognitive bias modification interventions in anxiety and depression: meta-Analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry 206 (2015), 7–16.
34. Cristea, I.A., Mogoaşe, C., David, D., Cuijpers, P., Practitioner review: Cognitive bias modification for mental health problems in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 56 (2015), 723–734.
35. Dandeneau, S.D., Baldwin, M.W., The inhibition of socially rejecting information among people with high versus low self-esteem: The role of attentional bias and the effects of bias reduction training. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 23 (2004), 584–602.
36. Dandeneau, S.D., Baldwin, M.W., The buffering effects of rejection-inhibiting attentional training on social and performance threat among adult students. Contemporary Educational Psychology 34 (2009), 42–50.
37. Dandeneau, S.D., Baldwin, M.W., Baccus, J.R., Sakellaropoulo, M., Pruessner, J.C., Cutting stress off at the pass: Reducing vigilance and responsiveness to social threat by manipulating attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007), 651–666.
38. De Voogd, E.L., Wiers, R.W., Prins, P.J.M., Salemink, E., Visual search attentional bias modification reduced social phobia in adolescents. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 45 (2014), 252–259.
39. Dennis, T.A., O'Toole, L.J., Mental health on the go: Effects of a gamified attentional bias modification mobile application in trait-anxious adults. Clinical Psychological Science 2 (2014), 576–590.
40. Dudeney, J., Sharpe, L., Hunt, C., Attentional bias towards threatening stimuli in children with anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review 40 (2015), 66–75.
41. Ehlers, A., Margraf, J., Davies, S., Roth, W.T., Selective processing of threat cues in subjects with panic attacks. Cognition & Emotion 2 (1988), 201–219.
42. Eldar, S., Apter, A., Lotan, D., Edgar, K.P., Naim, R., Fox, N.A., et al. Attention bias modification treatment for pediatric anxiety disorders: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry 169 (2012), 213–220.
43. Eldar, S., Ricon, T., Bar-Haim, Y., Plasticity in attention: Implications for stress response in children. Behaviour Research and Therapy 46 (2008), 450–461.
44. Emmelkamp, P.M.G., Attention bias modification: The emperor's new suit?. BMC Medicine, 10, 2012.
45. Enock, P.M., Hofmann, S.G., McNally, R.J., Attention bias modification training via smartphone to reduce social anxiety: A randomized, controlled multi-session experiment. Cognitive Therapy and Research 38 (2014), 200–216.
46. Eysenck, H.J., Editorial. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1 (1963), 1–2.
47. Eysenck, H.J., Meta-analysis: An abuse of research integration. Journal of Special Education 18 (1984), 41–59.
48. Fenske, M.J., Eastwood, J.D., Modulation of focused attention by faces expressing emotion: Evidence from flanker tasks. Emotion 3:4 (2003), 327–343.
49. Fox, E., Allocation of visual attention and anxiety. Cognition & Emotion 7:2 (1993), 207–215.
50. Fox, E., Russo, R., Dutton, K., Attentional bias for threat: Evidence for delayed disengagement from emotional faces. Cognition & Emotion 16 (2002), 355–379.
51. Gamble, A.L., Rapee, R.M., The time-course of attention to emotional faces in social phobia. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 41 (2010), 39–44.
52. Gilboa-Schechtman, E., Foa, E.B., Amir, N., Attentional biases for facial expressions in social phobia: The face-in-the-crowd paradigm. Cognition & Emotion 13 (1999), 305–318.
53. Golombok, S., Stavrou, A., Bonn, J., Mogg, K., Critchlow, S., Rust, J., The effects of diazepam on anxiety-related cognition. Cognitive Therapy and Research 15 (1991), 459–467.
54. Grafton, B., Mackintosh, B., Vujic, T., MacLeod, C., When ignorance is bliss: Explicit instruction and the efficacy of CBM-A for anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research 38 (2014), 172–188.
55. Grafton, B., MacLeod, C., Enhanced probing of attentional bias: The independence of anxiety-linked selectivity in attentional engagement with and disengagement from negative information. Cognition & Emotion 28 (2014), 1287–1302.
56. Grafton, B., MacLeod, C., Engaging with the wrong people: The basis of selective attention to negative faces in social anxiety. Clinical Psychological Science, 2016.
57. Grafton, B., Southworth, F., Watkins, E., MacLeod, C., Stuck in a sad place: Biased attentional disengagement in rumination. Emotion 16 (2016), 63–72.
58. Hakamata, Y., Lissek, S., Bar-Haim, Y., Britton, J.C., Fox, N.A., Leibenluft, E., et al. Attention bias modification treatment: A meta-analysis toward the establishment of novel treatment for anxiety. Biological Psychiatry 68 (2010), 982–990.
59. Hallion, L.S., Ruscio, A.M., A meta-analysis of the effect of cognitive bias modification on anxiety and depression. Psychological Bulletin 137 (2011), 940–958.
60. Hayes, S., Hirsch, C.R., Mathews, A., Facilitating a benign attentional bias reduces negative thought intrusions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 119 (2010), 235–240.
61. Hazen, R.A., Vasey, M.W., Schmidt, N.B., Attentional retraining: A randomized clinical trial for pathological worry. Journal of Psychiatric Research 43 (2009), 627–633.
62. Heeren, A., Mogoase, C., Philippot, P., McNally, R., Attentional bias modification for social anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review 40 (2015), 76–90.
63. Heeren, A., Reese, H., McNally, R.J., Philippot, P., Attention training toward and away from threat in social phobia: Effects on subjective, behavioral, and physiological measures of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy 50 (2012), 30–39.
64. Hope, D.A., Rapee, R.M., Heimberg, R.G., Dombeck, M.J., Representations of the self in social phobia: Vulnerability to social threat. Cognitive Therapy and Research 14 (1990), 177–189.
65. Julian, K., Beard, C., Schmidt, N.B., Powers, M.B., Smits, J.A.J., Attention training to reduce attention bias and social stressor reactivity: An attempt to replicate and extend previous findings. Behaviour Research and Therapy 50 (2012), 350–358.
66. Kapp, K.M., The gamification of learning and instruction. 2012, John Wiley, San Francisco, CA.
67. Kindt, M., Brosschot, J.F., Phobia-related cognitive bias for pictorial and linguistic stimuli. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 106:4 (1997), 644–648.
68. Koster, E.H., Crombez, G., Verschuere, B., De Houwer, J., Selective attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm: Differentiating vigilance and difficulty to disengage. Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004), 1183–1192.
69. Koster, E.H.W., Crombez, G., Verschuere, B., Van Damme, S., Wiersema, J., Components of attentional bias to threat in high trait anxiety: Facilitated engagement, impaired disengagement, and attentional avoidance. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44 (2006), 1757–1771.
70. Krebs, G., Hirsch, C.R., Mathews, A., The effect of attention modification with explicit vs. minimal instructions on worry. Behavior Research and Therapy 48 (2010), 251–256.
71. Kroeze, S., van den Hout, M.A., Selective attention for cardiac information in panic patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy 38 (2000), 63–72.
72. Kuckertz, J.M., Gildebrant, E., Liliequist, B., Karlstrom, P., Vappling, C., Bodlund, O., et al. Moderation and mediation of the effect of attentional training in social anxiety disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy 53 (2014), 30–40.
73. Lavy, E., Van Oppen, P., Van Den Hout, M., Selective processing of emotional information in obsessive compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 32 (1994), 243–246.
74. Lavy, E., van den Hout, M., Cognitive avoidance and attentional bias: Causal relationships. Cognitive Therapy and Research 18 (1994), 179–191.
75. Legerstee, J.S., Tulen, J.H., Dierckx, B., Treffers, P.D., Verhulst, F.C., Utens, E.M., CBT for childhood anxiety disorders: Differential changes in selective attention between treatment responders and non-responders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 51 (2010), 162–172.
76. Li, X., Li, X., Luo, Y.J., Anxiety and attentional bias for threat: An event-related potential study. Neuroreport 16 (2005), 1501–1505.
77. Linetzky, M., Pergamin-Hight, L., Pine, D.S., Bar-Haim, Y., Quantitative evaluation of the clinical efficacy of attention bias modification treatment for anxiety disorders. Depression and Anxiety 32 (2015), 383–391.
78. Li, S., Tan, J., Qian, M., Liu, X., Continual training of attentional bias in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy 46 (2008), 905–912.
79. Lundh, L.G., Öst, L.G., Attentional bias, self-consciousness and perfectionism in social phobia before and after cognitive-behaviour therapy. Scandinavian Journal of Behaviour Therapy 30 (2001), 4–16.
80. MacLeod, C., Grafton, B., Notebaert, L., Clarke, P. J. F., & Rudaizky, D. (2014). Emotion in motion: A novel approach to the assessment and modification of attentional bias. Poster presented at Stress and Anxiety Research Society Conference, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
81. MacLeod, C., Clarke, P.J.F., The attentional bias modification approach to anxiety intervention. Clinical Psychological Science 3 (2015), 58–78.
82. MacLeod, C., Hagan, R., Individual differences in the selective processing of threatening information, and emotional responses to a stressful life event. Behaviour Research and Therapy 30 (1992), 151–161.
83. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., Anxiety and the allocation of attention to threat. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Section A 40 (1988), 653–670.
84. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., Cognitive bias modification approaches to anxiety. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 8 (2012), 189–217.
85. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., Tata, P., Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 95 (1986), 15–20.
86. MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E.M., Anxiety and the selective processing of emotional information: Mediating roles of awareness, trait and state variables, and personal relevance of stimuli. Behaviour Research and Therapy 30 (1992), 479–491.
87. MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., Holker, L., Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111 (2002), 107–123.
88. Maoz, K., Abend, R., Fox, N.A., Pine, D.S., Bar-Haim, Y., Subliminal attention bias modification training in socially anxious individuals. Frontiers of Human Neuroscience, 7, 2013, 389.
89. Martin, M., Williams, R.M., Clark, D.M., Does anxiety lead to selective processing of threat-related information?. Behaviour Research and Therapy 29 (1991), 147–160.
90. Mathews, A., MacLeod, C., Selective processing of threat cues in anxiety states. Behaviour Research and Therapy 23 (1985), 563–569.
91. Mathews, A., MacLeod, C., Discrimination of threat cues without awareness in anxiety states. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 95 (1986), 131–138.
92. Mathews, A., MacLeod, C., Induced processing biases have causal effects on anxiety. Cognition & Emotion 16 (2002), 331–354.
93. Mattia, J.I., Heimberg, R.G., Hope, D.A., The revised Stroop color-naming task in social phobics. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 (1993), 305–313.
94. Mattick, R.P., Clarke, J.C., Development and validation of measures of social phobia scrutiny fear and social interaction anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy 36 (1998), 455–470.
95. McNally, R.J., Automaticity and the anxiety disorders. Behaviour research and therapy 33 (1995), 747–754.
96. McNally, R.J., Amir, N., Louro, C.E., Lukach, B.M., Riemann, B.C., Calamari, J.E., Cognitive processing of idiographic emotional information in panic disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 22 (1994), 119–122.
97. Mogg, K., Bradley, B.P., Attentional bias in generalized anxiety disorder versus depressive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 29 (2005), 29–45.
98. Mogg, K., Bradley, B.P., Hallowell, N., Attentional bias to threat: Roles of trait anxiety, stressful events, and awareness. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 47 (1994), 841–864.
99. Mogg, K., Bradley, B.P., Williams, R., Attentional bias in anxiety and depression: The role of awareness. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 34 (1995), 17–36.
100. Mogg, K., Holmes, A., Garner, M., Bradley, B.P., Effects of threat cues on attentional shifting, disengagement and response slowing in anxious individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy 46 (2008), 656–667.
101. Mogg, K., Kentish, J., Bradley, B.P., Effects of anxiety and awareness on colour-identification latencies for emotional words. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 (1993), 559–567.
102. Mogg, K., Mathews, A., Eysenck, M., Attentional bias to threat in clinical anxiety states. Cognition & Emotion 6 (1992), 149–159.
103. Mogg, K., Millar, N., Bradley, B.P., Biases in eye movements to threatening facial expressions in generalized anxiety disorder and depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109 (2000), 695–704.
104. Mogoase, C., David, D., Koster, E.H., Clinical efficacy of attentional bias modification procedures: An updated meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology 70 (2014), 1133–1157.
105. Musa, C., Lépine, J.P., Clark, D.M., Mansell, W., Ehlers, A., Selective attention in social phobia and the moderating effect of a concurrent depressive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003), 1043–1054.
106. Najmi, S., Amir, N., The effect of attention training on a behavioral test of contamination fears in individuals with subclinical obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 119 (2010), 136–142.
107. Notebaert, L., Clarke, P.J.F., Grafton, B., MacLeod, C., Validating a novel attentional bias modification task: The future may be in the cards. Behaviour Research and Therapy 65 (2015), 93–100.
108. Parkinson, L., Rachman, S., Intrusive thoughts: The effects of an uncontrived stress. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy 3 (1981), 111–118.
109. Pflugshaupt, T., Mosimann, U.P., Schmitt, W.J., von Wartburg, R., Wurtz, P., Lüthi, M., et al. To look or not to look at threat?: Scanpath differences within a group of spider phobics. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 21 (2007), 353–366.
110. Rapee, R.M., Heimberg, R.G., A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 35 (1997), 741–756.
111. Rapee, R.M., MacLeod, C., Carpenter, L., Gaston, J.E., Frei, J., Peters, L., et al. Integrating cognitive bias modification into a standard cognitive behavioural treatment package for social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013), 207–215.
112. Reese, H.E., McNally, R.J., Najmi, S., Amir, N., Attention training for reducing spider fear in spider-fearful individuals. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 24 (2010), 657–662.
113. Renwick, B., Campbell, I.C., Schmidt, U., Review of attentional bias modification: A brain-directed treatment for eating disorders. European Eating Disorders Review 21 (2013), 464–474.
114. Riemann, B.C., Kuckertz, J.M., Rozenman, M., Weersing, V.R., Amir, N., Augmentation of youth cognitive behavioural and pharmacological interventions with attention modification: A preliminary investigation. Depression and Anxiety 30 (2013), 822–828.
115. Rinck, M., Reinecke, A., Ellwart, T., Heuer, K., Becker, E.S., Speeded detection and increased distraction in fear of spiders: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114 (2005), 235–248.
116. Rozenman, M., Weersing, V., Amir, N., A case series of attention modification in clinically anxious youths. Behaviour Research and Therapy 49 (2011), 324–330.
117. Rudaizky, D., Basanovic, J., MacLeod, C., Biased attentional engagement with, and disengagement from, negative information: Independent cognitive pathways to anxiety vulnerability?. Cognition & Emotion 28 (2014), 245–259.
118. Rutherford, E., MacLeod, C., Campbell, L., Negativity selectivity effects and emotional selectivity effects in anxiety: Differential attentional correlates of state and trait variables. Cognition & Emotion 18 (2004), 711–720.
119. Schmidt, N.B., Richey, J., Buckner, J.D., Timpano, K.R., Attention training for generalized social anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 118 (2009), 5–14.
120. Schmukle, S.C., Unreliability of the dot probe task. European Journal of Personality 19 (2005), 595–605.
121. Schofield, C.A., Johnson, A.L., Inhoff, A.W., Coles, M.E., Social anxiety and difficulty disengaging threat: Evidence from eye-tracking. Cognition & Emotion 26 (2012), 300–311.
122. Schoorl, M., Putman, P., Mooren, T.M., Van der Werff, S., Van der Does, W., Attentional bias modification in Dutch veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: A case series with a personalized treatment version. Journal of Traumatic Stress 27 (2014), 240–243.
123. Schoorl, M., Putman, P., Van Der Does, W., Attentional bias modification in posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 82 (2013), 99–105.
124. See, J., MacLeod, C., Bridle, R., The reduction of anxiety vulnerability through the modification of attentional bias: A real-world study using a home-based cognitive bias modification procedure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 118 (2009), 65–75.
125. Sharpe, D., Of apples and oranges, file drawers and garbage: Why validity issues in meta-analysis will not go away. Clinical Psychology Review 17 (1997), 881–901.
126. Shechner, T., Rimon-Chakir, A., Britton, J.C., Lotan, D., Apter, A., Bliese, P.D., et al. Attention bias modification treatment augmenting effects on cognitive behavioral therapy in children with anxiety: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 53 (2014), 61–71.
127. Smith, M.L., Publication bias and meta-analysis. Evaluation in Education 4 (1980), 22–24.
128. Southworth, F., Grafton, B., MacLeod, C., Watkins, E., Heightened ruminative disposition is associated with impaired attentional disengagement from negative relative to positive information: Support for the “impaired disengagement” hypothesis. Cognition & Emotion, 2016, 1–13.
129. Spector, I., Pecknold, J.C., Libman, E., Selective attentional bias related to the noticeability aspect of anxiety symptoms in generalized social phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 17 (2003), 517–531.
130. Tata, P.R., Leibowitz, J.A., Prunty, M.J., Cameron, M., Pickering, A.D., Attentional bias in obsessional compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 34 (1996), 53–60.
131. Thrasher, S., Dalgleish, T., Yule, W., Information processing in post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 32 (1993), 247–254.
132. Tobon, J.I., Ouimet, A.J., Dozois, D.J., Attentional bias in anxiety disorders following cognitive behavioral treatment. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 25 (2011), 114–129.
133. Van Bockstaele, B., Verschuere, B., Koster, E.H., Tibboel, H., De Houwer, J., Crombez, G., Effects of attention training on self-reported, implicit, physiological and behavioural measures of spider fear. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 42 (2011), 211–218.
134. Waechter, S., Nelson, A.L., Wright, C., Hyatt, A., Oakman, J., Measuring attentional bias to threat: Reliability of dot probe and eye movement indices. Cognitive Therapy and Research 38 (2014), 313–333.
135. Waters, A.M., Pittaway, M., Mogg, K., Bradley, B.P., Pine, D.S., Attention training towards positive stimuli in clinically anxious children. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 4 (2013), 77–84.
136. Watts, F.N., McKenna, F.P., Sharrock, R., Trezise, L., Colour naming of phobia-related words. British Journal of Psychology 77:1 (1986), 97–108.
137. Wieser, M.J., Pauli, P., Weyers, P., Alpers, G.W., Mühlberger, A., Fear of negative evaluation and the hypervigilance-avoidance hypothesis: An eye-tracking study. Journal of Neural Transmission 116 (2009), 717–723.
138. Williams, J.M.G., Mathews, A., MacLeod, C., The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin 120 (1996), 3–24.
139. Williams, J., Watts, F.N., MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders. 1st ed., 1988, Wiley, Chichester.
140. Williams, J., Watts, F.N., MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders. 2nd ed., 1997, Wiley, Chichester.
141. Wilson, E., MacLeod, C., Methods for studying cognitive aspects of emotion. Rottenberg, J., Johnson, S.L., (eds.) Emotion and Psychopathology: Bridging affective and clinical science, 2007, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, 81–100.
142. Yiend, J., The effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of emotional information. Cognition & Emotion 24 (2010), 3–47.