Developing Cognitive Control: The Costs and Benefits of Active, Abstract Representations

Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology: Developing Cognitive Control Processes: Mechanisms, Implications, and Interventions

Volumn 37, Issue , 2013, Pages 55-90

  Munakata, Yuko ^a   Snyder, Hannah R ^a   Chatham, Christopher H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

Externally driven control; Inhibition; Perseveration; Proactive control; Reactive control; Self directed control

Indexed keywords

EID: 84987649186     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781118732373.ch3     Document Type: Chapter

References (119)

1. Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Seghete, K. L. M., Claus, E. D., Burgess, G. C., Ruzic, L., & Banich, M. T. (2011). Cognitive control in adolescence: Neural underpinnings and relation to self-report behaviors. PLoS ONE, 6 (6), 1-14. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021598
2. Aron, A. R. (2011). From reactive to proactive and selective control: Developing a richer model for stopping inappropriate responses. Biological Psychiatry, 69 (12), e55-68. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.024
3. Arrington, C. M. (2008). The effect of stimulus availability on task choice in voluntary task switching. Memory & Cognition, 36, 991-997. doi:10.3758/MC.36.5.991
4. Ashby, F. G., & Maddox, W. T. (2010). Human category learning 2.0. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1224, 147-161. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05874.x
5. Baillargeon, R., & Wang, S. (2002). Event categorization in infancy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 85-93. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01836-2
6. Beatty, J., & Lucero-Wagoner, B. (2000). The pupillary system. In J. Caccioppo, L. G. Tassinary, & G. Berntson (Eds.), The handbook of psychophysiology. Hillsdale, NJ: Cambridge University Press.
7. Bjorklund, D. F., Miller, P. H., Coyle, T. R., & Slawinski, J. L. (1997). Instructing children to use memory strategies: Evidence of utilization deficiencies in memory training studies. Developmental Review, 17, 411-441. doi:10.1006/drev.1997.0440
8. Blackwell, K., Cepeda, N., & Munakata, Y. (2009). When simple things are meaningful: Working memory strength predicts children 's cognitive flexibility. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103, 241-249. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.01.002
9. Blackwell, K. & Munakata, Y. (2013). Costs and benefits of developing proactive control. Manuscript in preparation.
10. Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78, 647-663. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x
11. Blaye, A., & Chevalier, N. (2011). The role of goal representation in preschoolers ' flexibility and inhibition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 469-483. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.006
12. Bowden, E. M., & Jung-Beeman, M. (2003a). Normative data for 144 compound remote associate problems. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers: A Journal of the Psychonomic Society, Inc, 35, 634-639. doi:10.3758/BF03195543
13. Bowden, E. M., & Jung-Beeman, M. (2003b). Aha! Insight experience correlates with solution activation in the right hemisphere. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 10, 730-737. doi:10.3758/BF03196539
14. Brace, J. J., Morton, J. B., & Munakata, Y. (2006). When actions speak louder than words: Improving children 's flexibility in a card-sorting task. Psychological Science, 17, 665-669. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01763.x
15. Braver, T. S. (2012). The variable nature of cognitive control: A dual-mechanisms framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 106-113.
16. Braver, T. S., Gray, J. R., & Burgess, G. C. (2007). Explaining the many varieties of working memory variation: Dual mechanisms of cognitive control. In A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. Kane, A. Miyake, & J. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
17. Bunge, S. A., & Zelazo, P. D. (2006). A brain-based account of the development of rule use in childhood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 118-121. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00419.x
18. Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Claxton, L. J. (2004). Individual differences in executive functioning and theory of mind: An investigation of inhibitory control and planning ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 299-319. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.01.002
19. Casey, B. J., Somerville, L. H., Gotlib, I. H., Ayduk, O., Franklin, N. T., Askren, M. K.,... Shoda, Y. (2011). Behavioral and neural correlates of delay of gratification 40 years later. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 108 (36), 14998-15003. doi:10.1073/pnas.1108561108
20. Casey, B., Trainor, R. J., Orendi, J. L., Schubert, A. B., Nystrom, L. E., Giedd, J. N.,... Rapoport, J. L. (1997). A developmental functional MRI study of prefrontal activation during performance of a go-no-go task. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 835-847. doi:10.1162/jocn.1997.9.6.835
21. Chatham, C. H., Frank, M. J., & Munakata, Y. (2009). Pupillometric and behavioral markers of a developmental shift in the temporal dynamics of cognitive control. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 106 (14), 5529-5533. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810002106
22. Chatham, C. H., Yerys, B. E., & Munakata, Y. (2012). Why won 't you do what I want? The informative failures of children and models. Cognitive Development, 27, 349-366.
23. Chrysikou, E. G., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2010). Dissociable brain states linked to common and creative object use. Human Brain Mapping, 32, 665-675. doi:10.1002/hbm.21056
24. Cohen, J. D., Lewis-Peacock, J. A., & Norman, K. A. (2012, October). Neural evidence for the flexible use of working memory and episodic memory in prospective remembering. Poster presented at the Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA.
25. Cohen, J. D., McClure, S. M., & Yu, A. J. (2007). Should I stay or should I go? How the human brain manages the trade-off between exploitation and exploration. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362 (1481), 933-942. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2098
26. Cohen, J. D., & Servan-Schreiber, D. (1992). Context, cortex, and dopa-mine: A connectionist approach to behavior and biology in schizophrenia. Psychological Review, 99, 45-77. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.45
27. Colunga, E., & Smith, L. B. (2005). From the lexicon to expectations about kinds: A role for associative learning. Psychological Review, 112, 347-382. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.112.2.347
28. Daw, N. D., Niv, Y., & Dayan, P. (2005). Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1704-1711. doi:10.1038/nn1560
29. Deak, G. O., Ray, S. D., & Brenneman, K. (2003). Children 's perseverative appearance-reality errors are related to emerging language skills. Child Development, 74, 944-964. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00578
30. Demanet, J., Verbruggen, F., Liefooghe, B., & Vandierendonck, A. (2010). Voluntary task switching under load: Contribution of top-down and bottom-up factors in goal-directed behavior. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 387-393. doi:10.3758/PBR.17.3.387
31. Derks, P. L., & Paclisanu, M. I. (1967). Simple strategies in binary prediction by children and adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73, 278. doi:10.1037/h0024137
32. de Vries, E. N., Prins, H. A., Crolla, R. M. P. H., den Outer, A. J., van Andel, G., van Helden, S. H.,... SURPASS Collaborative Group. (2010). Effect of a comprehensive surgical safety system on patient outcomes. New England Journal of Medicine, 363, 1928-1937. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa0911535
33. Diamond, A. (1985). Development of the ability to use recall to guide action, as indicated by infants ' performance on AB. Child Development, 56, 868-883. doi:10.2307/1130099
34. Diamond, A. (1991). Neuropsychological insights into the meaning of object concept development. In S. Carey & R. Gelman (Eds.), The epigenesis of mind: Essays on biology and knowledge (pp. 67-110). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
35. Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333 (6045), 959-964. doi:10.1126/science.1204529
36. Doll, B. B., Hutchison, K. E., & Frank, M. J. (2011). Dopaminergic genes predict individual differences in susceptibility to confirmation bias. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 6188-6198. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6486-10.2011
37. Edin, F., Macoveanu, J., Olesen, P., Tegnér, J., & Klingberg, T. (2007). Stronger synaptic connectivity as a mechanism behind development of working memory-related brain activity during childhood. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 750-760. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.5.750
38. Einstein, G. O., McDaniel, M. A., Thomas, R., Mayfield, S., Shank, H., Morrisette, N., & Breneiser, J. (2005). Multiple processes in prospective memory retrieval: Factors determining monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 134, 327-342. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.3.327
39. Ellamil, M., Dobson, C., Beeman, M., & Christoff, K. (2011). Evaluative and generative modes of thought during the creative process. NeuroImage, 59, 1783-1794. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.08.008
40. Finn, A. S., Sheridan, M. A., Kam, C. L. H., Hinshaw, S., & D 'Esposito, M. (2010). Longitudinal evidence for functional specialization of the neural circuit supporting working memory in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 11062-11067. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6266-09.2010
41. Flook, L., Smalley, S. L., Kitil, M. J., Galla, B. M., Kaiser-Greenland, S., Locke, J.,... Kasari, C. (2010). Effects of mindful awareness practices on executive functions in elementary school children. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 26, 70-95. doi:10.1080/15377900903379125
42. Forstmann, B., Brass, M., Koch, I., & Cramon, D. (2005). Internally generated and directly cued task sets: An investigation with fMRI. Neuropsychologia, 43, 943-952. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.08.008
43. Frank, M. J., Santamaria, A., O 'Reilly, R. C., & Willcutt, E. (2007). Testing computational models of dopamine and noradrenaline dysfunction in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 1583-1599. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301278
44. Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Robinson, J. L., & Hewitt, J. K. (2011). Developmental trajectories in toddlers ' self-restraint predict individual differences in executive functions 14 years later: A behavioral genetic analysis. Developmental Psychology, 47, 1410-1430. doi:10.1037/a0023750
45. Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., DeFries, J. C., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2008). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 137, 201-225. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.137.2.201
46. Fukuda, K., & Vogel, E. K. (2009). Human variation in overriding attentional capture. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 8726-8733. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009
47. Geman, S., Bienenstock, E., & Doursat, R. (1992). Neural networks and the bias/variance dilemma. Neural Computation, 4, 1-58. doi:10.1162/neco.1992.4.1.1
48. Gilhooly, K. J., & Fioratou, E. (2009). Executive functions in insight versus non-insight problem solving: An individual differences approach. Thinking & Reasoning, 15, 355-376. doi:10.1080/13546780903178615
49. Gómez, R., & Gerken, L. (2000). Infant artificial language learning and language acquisition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 178-186. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01467-4
50. Goschke, T. (2000). Intentional reconfiguration and involuntary persistence in task set switching. In S. Mosell & J. Driver (Eds.), Attention and performance XVIII: Control of cognitive processes in attention, memory and language (pp. 331-335). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
51. Grossberg, S. (1982). Processing of expected and unexpected events during conditioning and attention: A psychophysiological theory. Psychological Review, 89, 529-572. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.89.5.529
52. Hazy, T. E., Frank, M. J., & O 'Reilly, R. C. (2007). Towards an executive without a homunculus: Computational models of the prefrontal cortex/basal ganglia system. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362 (1485), 1601-1613. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2055
53. Hills, T., & Hertwig, R. (2011). Why aren 't we smarter already: Evolutionary trade-offs and cognitive enhancements. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 373-377. doi:10.1177/0963721411418300
54. Hirshorn, E. A., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2006). Role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in covert word retrieval: Neural correlates of switching during verbal fluency. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2547-2557. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.03.035
55. Jacques, S., & Zelazo, P. D. (2001). The flexible item selection task (FIST): A measure of executive function in preschoolers. Developmental Neuropsychology, 20, 573-591. doi:10.1207/875656401753549807
56. Jarosz, A. F., Colflesh, G. J. H., & Wiley, J. (2012). Uncorking the muse: Alcohol intoxication facilitates creative problem solving. Consciousness and Cognition, 21, 487-493. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.01.002
57. Jolles, D. D., & Crone, E. A. (2012). Training the developing brain: A neuro-cognitive perspective. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 76. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00076
58. Kavé, G., Kigel, S., & Kochva, R. (2008). Switching and clustering in verbal fluency tasks throughout childhood. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30, 349-359. doi:10.1080/13803390701416197
59. Keeney, T. J., Cannizzo, S. R., & Flavell, J. H. (1967). Spontaneous and induced verbal rehearsal in a recall task. Child Development, 38, 952-966. doi:10.2307/1127095
60. Kharitonova, M., Chien, S., Colunga, E., & Munakata, Y. (2009). More than a matter of getting "unstuck": Flexible thinkers use more abstract representations than perseverators. Developmental Science, 12, 662-669. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00799.x
61. Kharitonova, M., & Munakata, Y. (2011). The role of representations in executive function: Investigating a developmental link between flexibility and abstraction. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 347. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00347
62. Kirkham, N. Z., Slemmer, J. A., & Johnson, S. P. (2002). Visual statistical learning in infancy: Evidence for a domain general learning mechanism. Cognition, 83 (2), B35-42. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(02)00004-5
63. Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P. J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlström, K.,... Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD-A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 177-186. doi:10.1097/00004583-200502000-00010
64. Kriete, T., & Noelle, D. C. (2011). Generalization benefits of output gating in a model of prefrontal cortex. Connection Science, 23, 119-129. doi:10.1080/09540091.2011.569881
65. Locke, H. S., & Braver, T. S. (2008). Motivational influences on cognitive control: Behavior, brain activation, and individual differences. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 99-112. doi:10.3758/CABN.8.1.99
66. Logan, G. D., Cowan, W. B., & Davis, K. A. (1984). On the ability to inhibit simple and choice reaction time responses: A model and a method. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10, 276-291. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.10.2.276
67. Lorsbach, T. C., & Reimer, J. F. (2010). Developmental differences in cognitive control: Goal representation and maintenance during a continuous performance task. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11, 185-216. doi:10.1080/15248371003699936
68. Luria, A. (1959). The directive function of speech in development and dissolution, Part 1. Word, 15, 341-352.
69. Mackinlay, R., Charman, T., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2006). High functioning children with autism spectrum disorder: A novel test of multitasking. Brain and cognition, 61, 14-24. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2005.12.006
70. Maddox, W. T., Love, B. C., Glass, B. D., & Filoteo, J. V. (2008). When more is less: Feedback effects in perceptual category learning. Cognition, 108, 578-589. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.03.010
71. Marcovitch, S., Boseovski, J. J., & Knapp, R. J. (2007). Use it or lose it: Examining preschoolers ' difficulty in maintaining and executing a goal. Developmental Science, 10, 559-564. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00611.x
72. Marcovitch, S., & Zelazo, P. D. (2000). A generative connectionist model of the development of rule use in children. Proceedings of the Twenty-Second Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 334-339). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
73. Mareschal, D., French, R. M., & Quinn, P. C. (2000). A connectionist account of asymmetric category learning in early infancy. Developmental Psychology, 36, 635-645. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.36.5.635
74. Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167-202. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167
75. Miller, P. H., & Seier, W. L. (1994). Strategy utilization deficiencies in children: When, where, and why. In H. W. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 25, pp. 107-156). New York, NY: Academic Press.
76. Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49-100. doi: 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
77. Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H.,... Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 108 (7), 2693-2698. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010076108
78. Morein-Zamir, S., Hommersen, P., Johnston, C., & Kingstone, A. (2008). Novel measures of response performance and inhibition in children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 1199-1210. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9243-7
79. Morton, J. B., Bosma, R., & Ansari, D. (2009). Age-related changes in brain activation associated with dimensional shifts of attention: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 46, 249-256. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.01.037
80. Morton, J. B., & Munakata, Y. (2002a). Active versus latent representations: A neural network model of perseveration, dissociation, and decalage. Developmental Psychobiology, 40, 255-265. doi:10.1002/dev.10033
81. Morton, J. B., & Munakata, Y. (2002b). Are you listening? Exploring a developmental knowledge-action dissociation in a speech interpretation task. Developmental Science, 5, 435-440. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00238
82. Morton, J. B., Trehub, S. E., & Zelazo, P. D. (2003). Sources of inflexibility in 6-year-olds ' understanding of emotion in speech. Child Development, 74, 1857-1868. doi:10.1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00642.x
83. Müller, J., Dreisbach, G., Goschke, T., Hensch, T., Lesch, K., & Brocke, B. (2007). Dopamine and cognitive control: The prospect of monetary gains influences the balance between flexibility and stability in a set-shifting paradigm. European Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 3661-3668. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05949.x
84. Munakata, Y. (1998). Infant perseveration and implications for object permanence theories: A PDP model of the A B task. Developmental Science, 1, 161-184. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00021
85. Munakata, Y. (2001). Graded representations in behavioral dissociations. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 309-315. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01682-X
86. Munakata, Y., Herd, S. A., Chatham, C. H., Depue, B. E., Banich, M. T., & O 'Reilly, R. C. (2011). A unified framework for inhibitory control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 453-459. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.07.011
87. Munakata, Y., Snyder, H. R., & Chatham, C. H. (2012). Developing cognitive control: Three key transitions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 71-77. doi:10.1177/0963721412436807
88. Munakata, Y., & Yerys, B. E. (2001). All together now: When dissociations between knowledge and action disappear. Psychological Science, 12, 335-337. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00361
89. O 'Reilly, R. C., & Frank, M. J. (2006). Making working memory work: A computational model of learning in the frontal cortex and basal ganglia. Neural Computation, 18, 283-328. doi:10.1162/089976606775093909
90. O 'Reilly, R. C., & Munakata, Y. (2000). Computational explorations in cognitive neuroscience: Understanding the mind by simulating the brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
91. Ormerod, T. C., MacGregor, J. N., & Chronicle, E. P. (2002). Dynamics and constraints in insight problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 791-799. doi:10.1037//0278-7393.28.4.791
92. Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. New York, NY: Basic Books.
93. Ramscar, M., & Gitcho, N. (2007). Developmental change and the nature of learning in childhood. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 274-279. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.05.007
94. Ramscar, M., & Yarlett, D. (2010). Linguistic self-correction in the absence of feedback: A new approach to the logical problem of language acquisition. Cognitive Science, 31, 927-960. doi:10.1080/03640210701703576
95. Reverberi, C., Toraldo, A., D 'Agostini, S., & Skrap, M. (2005). Better without (lateral) frontal cortex? Insight problems solved by frontal patients. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 128, 2882-2890. doi:10.1093/brain/awh577
96. Ricks, T. R., Turley-Ames, K. J., & Wiley, J. (2007). Effects of working memory capacity on mental set due to domain knowledge. Memory & Cognition, 35, 1456-1462. doi:10.3758/BF03193615
97. Rogers, T. T., & McClelland, J. L. (2004). Semantic cognition: A parallel distributed processing approach. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
98. Romberg, A. R., & Saffran, J. R. (2010). Statistical learning and language acquisition. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 1, 906-914. doi:10.1002/wcs.78
99. Scibinetti, P., Tocci, N., & Pesce, C. (2011). Motor creativity and creative thinking in children: The diverging role of inhibition. Creativity Research Journal, 23, 262-272. doi:10.1080/10400419.2011.595993
100. Sharon, T., & DeLoache, J. S. (2003). The role of perseveration in children 's symbolic understanding and skill. Developmental Science, 6, 289-296. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00285
101. Siegler, R. S. (1996). Emerging minds: The process of change in children's thinking. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
102. Siklos, S., & Kerns, K. A. (2004). Assessing multitasking in children with ADHD using a modified six elements test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 19, 347-361. doi:10.1016/S0887-6177(03)00071-4
103. Simpson, A., Riggs, K. J., Beck, S. R., Gorniak, S. L., Wu, Y., Abbott, D., & Diamond, A. (2012). Refining the understanding of inhibitory processes: How response prepotency is created and overcome. Developmental Science, 15, 62-73. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01105.x
104. Smidts, D. P., Jacobs, R., & Anderson, V. (2004). The object classification task for children (OCTC): A measure of concept generation and mental flexibility in early childhood. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 385-401. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2601_2
105. Snyder, H. R., Banich, M. T., & Munakata, Y. (2011). Choosing our words: Retrieval and selection processes recruit shared neural substrates in left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 3470-3482. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00023
106. Snyder, H. R., & Munakata, Y. (2010). Becoming self-directed: Abstract representations support endogenous flexibility in children. Cognition, 116, 155-167. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.04.007
107. Speer, N. K., Jacoby, L. L., & Braver, T. S. (2003). Strategy-dependent changes in memory: Effects on behavior and brain activity. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 3, 155-167. doi:10.3758/CABN.3.3.155
108. Stedron, J. M., Sahni, S. D., & Munakata, Y. (2005). Common mechanisms for working memory and attention: The case of perseveration with visible solutions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 623-631. doi:10.1162/0898929053467622
109. Stickgold, R., Scott, L., Rittenhouse, C., & Hobson, J. A. (1999). Sleep-induced changes in associative memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 11, 182-193. doi:10.1162/089892999563319
110. Thompson-Schill, S. L., Ramscar, M., & Chrysikou, E. G. (2009). Cognition without control: When a little frontal lobe goes a long way. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 259-263. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01648.x
111. Thorell, L. B., Lindqvist, S., Bergman Nutley, S., Bohlin, G., & Klingberg, T. (2009). Training and transfer effects of executive functions in preschool children. Developmental Science, 12, 106-113. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00745.x
112. Towse, J. N., Lewis, C., & Knowles, M. (2007). When knowledge is not enough: The phenomenon of goal neglect in preschool children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 96, 320-332. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2006.12.007
113. Vogel, E. K., McCollough, A. W., & Machizawa, M. G. (2005). Neural measures reveal individual differences in controlling access to working memory. Nature, 438 (7067), 500-503. doi:10.1038/nature04171
114. Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language (Hanfmann, E., & Vakor, G., Trans.). Oxford, UK: Wiley. (Original work published 1934)
115. White, H. A., & Shah, P. (2006). Uninhibited imaginations: Creativity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1121-1131. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.007
116. Wieth, M. B., & Zacks, R. T. (2011). Time of day effects on problem solving: When the non-optimal is optimal. Thinking & Reasoning, 17, 387-401. doi:10.1080/13546783.2011.625663
117. Wiley, J., & Jarosz, A. F. (2012). How working memory capacity affects problem solving. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 56, pp. 185-227). Burlington, VT: Academic Press.
118. Young, S. E., Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Willcutt, E. G., Corley, R. P., Haberstick, B. C., & Hewitt, J. K. (2009). Behavioral disinhibition: Liability for externalizing spectrum disorders and its genetic and environmental relation to response inhibition across adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 117-130. doi:10.1037/a0014657
119. Zelazo, P. D., Frye, D., & Rapus, T. (1996). An age-related dissociation between knowing rules and using them. Cognitive Development, 11, 37-63. doi:10.1016/S0885-2014(96)90027-1