Infectious disease management through point-of-care personalized medicine molecular diagnostic technologies

Journal of Personalized Medicine

Volumn 2, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 50-70

  Bissonnette, Luc ^a,b   Bergeron, Michel G ^a,b  

^a LAVAL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b LAVAL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Infectious diseases; Molecular diagnostics; Personalized medicine; Point of care

Indexed keywords

METICILLIN; VANCOMYCIN;

ACINETOBACTER BAUMANNII; ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; ELECTROSPRAY MASS SPECTROMETRY; ENTEROBACTER; ESCHERICHIA COLI; GENOTYPING TECHNIQUE; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HUMAN; INFECTION; INFLUENZA; KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE; MATRIX ASSISTED LASER DESORPTION IONIZATION TIME OF FLIGHT MASS SPECTROMETRY; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; MULTIPLEX POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; PERSONALIZED MEDICINE; PNEUMONIA; POINT OF CARE TESTING; PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA; REAL TIME POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REVIEW; SERRATIA MARCESCENS; STREPTOCOCCUS AGALACTIAE; TUBERCULOSIS; VANCOMYCIN RESISTANT ENTEROCOCCUS;

EID: 84984991223     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20754426     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/jpm2020050     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Arnold, A.; Brouse, S.D.; Pitcher, W.D.; Hall, R.G., II. Empiric Therapy for Gram-Negative Pathogens in Nosocomial and Health Care-Associated Pneumonia: Starting with the End in Mind. J. Intensive Care Med. 2010, 25, 259-270.
2. Jabes, D. The Antibiotic R&D Pipeline: An Update. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2011, 14, 564-569.
3. Micek, S.T.; Welch, E.C.; Khan, J.; Pervez, M.; Doherty, J.A.; Reichley, R.M.; Hoppe-Bauer, J.; Dunne, W.M.; Kollef, M.H. Resistance to Empiric Antimicrobial Treatment Predicts Outcome in Severe Sepsis Associated with Gram-Negative Bacteremia. J. Hosp. Med. 2011, 6, 405-410.
4. Nicolau, D.P. Current Challenges in the Management of the Infected Patient. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2011, 24 (suppl. 1), S1-S10.
5. Pogue, J.M.; Marchaim, D.; Kaye, D.; Kaye, K.S. Revisiting "Older" Antimicrobials in the Era of Multidrug Resistance. Pharmacotherapy 2011, 31, 912-921.
6. Griffith, M.M.; Gross, A.E.; Sutton, S.H.; Bolon, M.K.; Esterly, J.S.; Patel, J.A.; Postelnick, M.J.; Zembower, T.R.; Scheetz, M.H. The Impact of Anti-Infective Drug Shortages on Hospitals in the United States: Trends and Causes. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2012, 54, 684-691
7. Morens, D.M.; Folkers, G.K.; Fauci, A.S. Emerging Infections: a Perpetual Challenge. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2008, 8, 710-719.
8. Abrahams, E.; Ginsburg, G.S.; Silver, M. The Personalized Medicine Coalition. Am. J. Pharmacogenomics 2005, 5, 345-355.
9. Ginsburg, G.S.; Willard, H.F. Genomic and Personalized Medicine: Foundations and Applications. Transl. Res. 2009, 154, 277-287.
10. Walk, E.E. Improving the Power of Diagnostics in the Era of Targeted Therapy and Personalized Healthcare. Curr. Opin. Drug Discov. Dev. 2010, 13, 226-234.
11. The Case for Personalized Medicine, 3rd edition; Personalized Medicine Coalition: Washington, DC, USA, 2011; Available online: http://www.personalizedmedicinecoalition.org (accessed in November 2011).
12. Chan, I.S.; Ginsburg, G.S. Personalized Medicine: Progress and Promise. Annu. Rev. Genomics Hum. Genet. 2011, 12, 217-244.
13. Klouche, M.; Schröder, U. Rapid Methods for Diagnosis of Bloodstream Infections. Clin. Chem, Lab. Med. 2008, 46, 888-908.
14. Lehmann, L.E.; Herpichboehm, B.; Kost, G.J., Kollef, M.H.; Stüber, F. Cost and Mortality Prediction using Polymerase Chain Reaction Pathogen Detection in Sepsis: Evidence from Three Observational Trials. Crit. Care 2010, 14, R186.
15. Olano, J.P.; Walker, D.H. Diagnosing Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 2011, 135, 83-91.
16. Bissonnette, L.; Bergeron, M.G. Next Revolution in the Molecular Theranostics of Infectious Diseases: Microfabricated Systems for Personalized Medicine. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2006, 6, 433-450.
17. Millar, B.C.; Xu, J.; Moore, J.E. Molecular Diagnostics of Medically Important Infections. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2007, 9, 21-40.
18. Bergeron, M.G.; Ke, D.; Ménard, C.; Picard, F.J.; Gagnon, M.; Bernier, M.; Ouellette, M.; Roy, P.H.; Marcoux, S.; Fraser, W.D. Rapid Detection of Group B Streptococci in Pregnant Women at Delivery. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000, 343, 175-179.
19. Scicchitano, L.M.; Bourbeau, P.P. Comparative Evaluation of the AccuProbe Group B Streptococcus Culture Test, the BD GeneOhm Strep B Assay, and Culture for Detection of Group B Streptococci in Pregnant Women. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2009, 47, 3021-3023.
20. Cunningham, R.; Jenks, P.; Northwood, J.; Wallis, M.; Ferguson, S.; Hunt, S. Effect on MRSA Transmission of Rapid PCR Testing of Patients Admitted to Critical Care. J. Hosp. Infect. 2007, 65, 24-28.
21. Uçkay, I.; Sax, H.; Iten, A.; Camus, V.; Renzi, G.; Schrenzel, J.; Perrier, A.; Pittet, D. Effect of Screening for Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Carriage by Polymerase Chain Reaction on the Duration of Unnecessary Preemptive Contact Isolation. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 2008, 29, 1077-1079.
22. Dalla Valle, C.; Pasca, M.R.; De Vitis, D.; Marzani, F.C.; Emmi, V.; Marone, P. Control of MRSA Infection and Colonisation in an Intensive Care Unit by GeneOhm MRSA Assay and Culture Methods. BMC Infect. Dis. 2009, 9, 137.
23. Snyder, J.W.; Munier, G.K.; Johnson, C.L. Comparison of the BD GeneOhm Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) PCR Assay to Culture by Use of BBL CHROMagar MRSA for Detection of MRSA in Nasal Surveillance Cultures from Intensive Care Unit Patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2010, 48, 1305-1309.
24. Hassan, H.; Shorman, M. Evaluation of the BD GeneOhm MRSA and VanR Assays as a Rapid Screening Tool for Detection of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci in a Tertiary Hospital in Saudi Arabia. Int. J. Microbiol. 2011, 2011, 861514.
25. Munson, E.; Bilbo, D.; Paul, M.; Napierala, M.; Hryciuk, J.E. Modifications of Commercial Toxigenic Clostridium difficile PCR Resulting in Improved Economy and Workflow Efficiency. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2011, 49, 2279-2282.
26. Selvaraju, S.B.; Gripka, M.; Estes, K.; Nguyen, A.; Jackson, M.A.; Selvarangan, R. Detection of Toxigenic Clostridium difficile in Pediatric Stool Samples: an Evaluation of Quik Check Complete Antigen Assay, BD GeneOhm Cdiff PCR, and ProGastro Cd PCR Assays. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2011, 71, 224-229.
27. Pandit, A.; Mackay, W.G.; Steel, C.; van Loon, A.M.; Schuurman, R. HIV-1 Drug Resistance Genotyping Quality Assessment: Results of the ENVA7 Genotyping Proficiency Programme. J. Clin. Virol. 2008, 43, 401-406.
28. Cepheid Home Page. Available online: http://www.cepheid.com (accessed in May 2012).
29. Van Rie, A.; Page-Shipp, L.; Scott, L.; Sanne, I.; Stevens, W. Xpert® MTB/RIF for Point-of-Care Diagnosis of TB in High-HIV Burden, Resource-Limited Countries: Hype or Hope? Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2010, 10, 937-946.
30. Donald, P.R.; Sirgel, F.A.; Venter, A.; Parkin, D.P.; Seifart, H.I.; van de Wal, B.W.; Werely, C.; van Helden, P.D.; Maritz, J.S. The Influence of Human N-Acetyltransferase Genotype on the Early Bactericidal Activity of Isoniazid. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2004, 39, 1425-1430.
31. Kinzig-Schippers, M.; Tomalik-Scharte, D.; Jetter, A.; Scheidel, B.; Jakob, V.; Rodamer, M.; Cascorbi, I.; Doroshyenko, O.; Sörgel, F.; Fuhr, U. Should We Use N-Acetyltransferase Type 2 Genotyping to Personalize Isoniazid Doses? Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005, 49, 1733-1738.
32. Donald, P.R.; Parkin, D.P.; Seifart, H.I.; Schaaf, H.S.; van Helden, P.D.; Werely, C.J.; Sirgel, F.A.; Venter, A.; Maritz, J.S. The Influence of Dose and N-Acetyltransferase-2 (NAT2) Genotype and Phenotype on the Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Isoniazid. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2007, 63, 633-639.
33. Betsou, F.; Parida, S.K.; Guillerm, M. Infectious Diseases Biobanking as a Catalyst Towards Personalized Medicine: Mycobacterium tuberculosis Paradigm. Tuberculosis 2011, 91, 524-532.
34. Faulstich, K.; Haberstroh, K. Handheld and Portable Test Systems for Decentralized Testing: from Lab to Marketplace. Proc. SPIE 2009, 7306, 73060H1-73060H8.
35. Schimke, I. Quality and Timeliness in Medical Laboratory Testing. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2009, 393, 1499-1504.
36. Kumar, A.; Roberts, D.; Wood, K.E.; Light, B.; Parrillo, J.E.; Sharma, S.; Suppes, R.; Feinstein, D.; Zanotti, S.; Taiberg, L.; Gurka, D.; Kumar, A.; Cheang, M. Duration of Hypotension before Initiation of Antimicrobial Therapy is the Critical Determinant of Survival in Human Septic Shock. Crit. Care Med. 2006, 34, 1589-1596.
37. Lin, J.-N.; Lai, C.-H.; Chen, Y.-H.; Chang, L.-L.; Lu, P.-L.; Tsai, S.-S.; Lin, H.-L.; Lin, H.-H. Characteristics and Outcomes of Polymicrobial Bloodstream Infections in the Emergency Department: A Matched Case-Control Study. Acad. Emerg. Med. 2010, 17, 1072-1079.
38. McGeer, A.; Green, K.A.; Plevneshi, A.; Shigayeva, A.; Siddiqi, N.; Raboud, J.; Low, D.E.; Toronto Invasive Bacterial Diseases Network. Antiviral Therapy and Outcomes of Influenza Requiring Hospitalization in Ontario, Canada. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2007, 45, 1568-1575.
39. Klotz, S.A.; Chasin, B.S.; Powell, B.; Gaur, N.K.; Lipke P.N. Polymicrobial Bloodstream Infections Involving Candida Species: Analysis of Patients and Review of the Literature. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2007, 59, 401-406.
40. Brunstein, J.D.; Cline, C.L.; McKinney, S.; Thomas, E. Evidence from Multiplex Molecular Assays for Complex Multipathogen Interactions in Acute Respiratory Infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2008, 46, 97-102.
41. Rogers, G.B.; Hoffman, L.R.; Whiteley, M.; Daniels, T.W.; Carroll, M.P.; Bruce, K.D. Revealing the Dynamics of Polymicrobial Infections: Implications for Antibiotic Therapy. Trends Microbiol. 2010, 18, 357-364.
42. Leggieri, N.; Rida, A.; François, P.; Schrenzel, J. Molecular Diagnosis of Bloodstream Infections: Planning to (Physically) Reach the Bedside. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2010, 23, 311-319.
43. Nougairede, A.; Ninove, L.; Zandotti, C.; de Lamballerie, X.; Gazin, C.; Drancourt, M.; La Scola, B.; Raoult, D.; Charrel, R.N. Point of Care Strategy for Rapid Diagnosis of Novel A/H1N1 Influenza Virus. PLoS One 2010, 5, e9215.
44. Cohen-Bacrie, S.; Ninove, L.; Nougairède, A.; Charrel, R.; Richet, H.; Minodier, P.; Badiaga, S.; Noël, G.; La Scola, B.; de Lamballerie, X.; Drancourt, M.; Raoult, D. Revolutionizing Clinical Microbiology Laboratory Organization in Hospitals with In Situ Point-of-Care. PLoS One 2011, 6, e22403.
45. Bergeron, M.G. Revolutionizing the Practice of Medicine through Rapid (<1 h) DNA-Based Diagnostics. Clin. Invest. Med. 2008, 31, E265-E271.
46. Association for Molecular Pathology. FDA-Cleared/Approved Molecular Diagnostics Tests (database). Available online: http://www.amp.org/FDATable/FDATable.doc (accessed in February 2012).
47. BD Diagnostics GeneOhm Home Page. Available online: http://www.bd.com/geneohm (accessed in May 2012).
48. Luminex Home Page. Available online: http://www.luminexcorp.com (accessed in May 2012)
49. Benson, R.; Tondella, M.L.; Bhatnagar, J.; Carvalho, M. daG.S.; Sampson, J.S.; Talkington, D.F.; Whitney, A.M. Mothershed, E.; McGee, L.; Carlone, G.; McClee, V.; Guarner, J.; Zaki, S.; Dejsiri, S.; Cronin, K.; Han, J.; Fields, B.S. Development and Evaluation of a Novel Multiplex PCR Technology for Molecular Differential Detection of Bacterial Respiratory Disease Pathogens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2008, 46, 2074-2077.
50. Caliendo, A.M. Multiplex PCR and Emerging Technologies for the Detection of Respiratory Pathogens. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2011, 52 (suppl. 4), S326-S330.
51. Endimiani, A.; Hujer, K.M.; Hujer, A.M.; Kurz, S.; Jacobs, M.R.; Perlin, D.S.; Bonomo, R.A. Are We Ready for Novel Detection Methods to Treat Respiratory Pathogens in Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia? Clin. Infect. Dis. 2011, 52 (suppl. 4), S373-S383.
52. Russek-Cohen, E.; Feldblyum, T.; Whitaker, K.B.; Hojvat, S. FDA Perspectives on Diagnostic Device Clinical Studies for Respiratory Infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2011, 52 (suppl. 4), S305-S311.
53. Ecker, D.J.; Sampath, R.; Li, H.; Massire, C.; Matthews, H.E.; Toleno, D.; Hall, T.A.; Blyn, L.B.; Eshoo, M.W., Ranken, R.; Hofstadler, S.A.; Tang, Y.-W. New Technology for Rapid Molecular Diagnosis of Bloodstream Infections. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2010, 10, 399-415.
54. Seng, P.; Rolain, J.-M.; Fournier, P.E.; La Scola, B.; Drancourt, M.; Raoult, D. MALDI-TOFMass Spectrometry Applications in Clinical Microbiology. Future Microbiol. 2010, 5, 1733-1754.
55. Dekker, J.P.; Branda, J.A. MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry in the Clinical Microbiology Laboratory. Clin. Microbiol. Newslett. 2011, 33, 87-93.
56. La Scola, B. Intact Cell MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry-Based Approaches for the Diagnosis of Bloodstream Infections. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2011, 11, 287-298.
57. Brzuszkiewicz, E.; Thürmer, A.; Schuldes, J.; Leimbach, A.; Liesegang, H.; Meyer, F.D.; Boelter, J.; Petersen, H.; Gottschalk, G.; Daniel, R. Genome Sequence Analyses of Two Isolates from the Recent Escherichia coli Outbreak in Germany Reveal the Emergence of a New Pathotype: Entero-Aggregative-Haemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EAHEC). Arch. Microbiol. 2011, 193, 883-891.
58. Emonet, S.; Shah, H.N.; Cherkaoui, A.; Schrenzel, J. Application and Use of Various Mass Spectrometry Methods in Clinical Microbiology. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2010, 16, 1604-1613.
59. Mitka, M. Hospitalizations for Extreme Conditions Mean Extreme Expenses, Study Verifies. JAMA 2010, 304, 2579-2580.
60. Ehrmeyer, S.S.; Laessig, R.H. Point-of-Care Testing, Medical Error, and Patient Safety: a 2007 Assessment. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2007, 45, 766-773.
61. Nichols, J.H. Point of Care Testing. Clin. Lab. Med. 2007, 27, 893-908.
62. Nichols, J.H. The Future of Point-of-Care Testing. Point Care 2008, 7, 271-273.
63. Trevino, E.A.; Weissfeld, A.S. The Case for Point-of-Care Testing in Infectious-Disease Diagnosis. Clin. Microbiol. Newslett. 2007, 29, 177-179.
64. Overturf, G.D. CLIA Waived Testing in Infectious Diseases. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2008, 27, 1009-1012.
65. Rajan, A.; Glorikian, H. Point-of-Care Diagnostics: Market Trends and Growth Drivers. Expert Opin. Med. Diagn. 2009, 3, 1-4.
66. Clerc, O.; Greub, G. Routine Use of Point-of-Care Tests: Usefulness and Application in Clinical Microbiology. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2010, 16, 1054-1061.
67. Niemz, A.; Ferguson, T.M.; Boyle, D.S. Point-of-Care Nucleic Acid Testing for Infectious Diseases. Trends Biotechnol. 2011, 29, 240-250.
68. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Tests Granted Waived Status Under CLIA (database). Available online: http://www.cms.hhs.gov/CLIA/downloads/waivetbl.pdf (accessed in November 2011).
69. Kibe, S.; Adams, K.; Barlow, G. Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers of Sepsis in Critical Care. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2011, 66 (suppl. 2), ii33-ii40.
70. Schuetz, P.; Albrich, W.; Mueller, B. Procalcitonin for Diagnosis of Infection and Guide to Antibiotic Decisions: Past, Present and Future. BMC Med. 2011, 9, 107.
71. Luppa, P.B.; Müller, C.; Schlichtiger, A.; Schlebusch, H. Point-of-Care Testing (POCT): Current Techniques and Future Perspectives. Trends Anal. Chem. 2011, 30, 887-898.
72. Jahn, U.R.; Van Aken, H. Near-Patient Testing-Point-of-Care or Point of Costs and Convenience? Br. J. Anesthesia 2003, 90, 425-427.
73. Huckle, D. Point-of-Care Diagnostics: an Advancing Sector with Nontechnical Issues. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2008, 8, 679-688.
74. GenMark Diagnostics Home Page. Available online: http://www.genmarkdx.com (accessed in May 2012).
75. Miller, M.B., Tang, Y.-W. Basic Concepts of Microarrays and Potential Applications in Clinical Microbiology. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2009, 22, 611-633.
76. Weile, J; Knabbe, C. Current Applications and Future Trends of Molecular Diagnostics in Clinical Bacteriology. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2009, 394, 731-742.
77. Jordan, B.R. Is There a Niche for DNA Microarrays in Molecular Diagnostics? Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2010, 10, 875-882.
78. Bauer, M.; Reinhart, K. Molecular Diagnostics of Sepsis-Where are We Today? Int J Med Microbiol 2010, 300, 411-413.
79. Cenciarini-Borde, C.; Courtois, S.; La Scola, B. Nucleic Acids as Viability Markers for Bacteria Detection Using Molecular Tools. Future Microbiol. 2009, 4, 45-64.
80. Jofre, J.; AR Blanch. Feasibility of Methods Based on Nucleic Acid Amplification Techniques to Fulfil the Requirements for Microbiological Analysis of Water Quality. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2010, 109, 1853-1867.
81. Ince, J.; McNally, A. Development of Rapid Automated Diagnostics for Infectious Diseases: Advances and Challenges. Expert Rev. Med. Devices 2009, 6, 641-651.
82. Kiechle, F.L.; Holland, C.A. Point-of-Care Testing and Molecular Diagnostics: Miniaturization Required. Clin. Lab. Med. 2009, 29, 555-560.
83. Bissonnette, L.; Bergeron, M.G. Diagnosing Infections-Current and Anticipated Technologies for Point-of-Care Diagnostics and Home-Based Testing. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2010, 16, 1044-1053.
84. Eicher, D.; Merten, C.A. Microfluidic Devices for Diagnostic Applications. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2011, 11, 505-519.
85. Haeberle, S.; Zengerle, R. Microfluidic Platforms for Lab-on-a-Chip Applications. Lab Chip 2007, 7, 1094-1110.
86. Siegrist, J.; Peytavi, R.; Bergeron, M.G.; Madou, M. Microfluidics for IVD Analysis: Triumphs and Hurdles of Centrifugal Platforms-Part 1: Molecular Fundamentals. IVD Technol. 2009, 15 (9), 27-33.
87. Gorkin, R.; Park, J.; Siegrist, J.; Amasia, M.; Lee, B.S.; Park, J.-M.; Kim, J.; Kim, H., Madou, M.; Cho, Y.-K. Centrifugal Microfluidics for Biomedical Applications. Lab Chip 2010, 10, 1758-1773.
88. Lien, K.-Y.; Lee, G.-B. Miniaturization of Molecular Biological Techniques for Gene Assay. Analyst 2010, 135, 1499-1518.
89. Siegrist, J.; Peytavi, R.; Bergeron, M.G.; Madou, M. Microfluidics for IVD Analysis: Triumphs and Hurdles of Centrifugal Platforms-Part 2: Centrifugal Microfluidics. IVD Technol. 2010a, 16 (1), 41-47.
90. Ferguson, R.S.; Buchsbaum, S.F.; Wu, T.-T.; Hsieh, K.; Xiao, Y.; Sun R.; Soh, H.T. Genetic Analysis of H1N1 Influenza Virus from Throat Swab Samples in a Microfluidic System for Point-of-Care Diagnostics. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 9129-9135.
91. Schumacher, S.; Nestler, J.; Otto, T.; Wegener, M.; Ehrentreich-Förster, E.; Michel, D.; Wunderlich, K.; Palzer, S.; Sohn, K.; Weber, A.; Burgard, M.; Grzesiak, A.; Teichert, A.; Brandenburg, A.; Koger, B.; Albers, J.; Nebling, E.; Bier, F.F. Highly-Integrated Lab-on-a-Chip System for Point-of-Care Multiparameter Analysis. Lab Chip 2011, DOI:10.1039/C1LC20693A.
92. Becker, H.; Gärtner, C. Polymer Microfabrication Technologies for Microfluidic Systems. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2008, 390, 89-111.
93. Sollier, E.; Murray, C.; Maoddi, P.; Di Carlo, D. Rapid Prototyping Polymers for Microfluidic Devices and High Pressure Injections. Lab Chip 2011, 11, 3752-3765.
94. Madou, M.; Zoval, J.; Jia, G.; Kido, H.; Kim, J.; Kim, N. Lab on a CD. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2006, 8, 601-628.
95. Oh, K.W.; Ahn, C.H. A Review of Microvalves. J. Micromech. Microeng. 2006, 16, R13-R39.
96. Nolte, D.D. Invited Review Article: Review of Centrifugal Microfluidic and Bio-Optical Disks. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2009, 80, 101101.
97. Mosadegh, B.; Bersano-Begey, T.; Park, J.Y.; Burns, M.A.; Takayama, S. Next-Generation Integrated Microfluidic Circuits. Lab Chip 2011, 11, 2813-2818.
98. Cho, Y.-K.; Lee, J.-G.; Park, J.-M.; Lee, B.-S.; Lee, Y.; Ko, C. One-Step Pathogen Specific DNA Extraction from Whole Blood on a Centrifugal Microfluidic Device. Lab Chip 2007, 7, 565-573.
99. Wen, J.; Legendre, L.A.; Bienvenue, J.M.; Landers, J.P. Purification of Nucleic Acids in Microfluidic Devices. Anal. Chem. 2008, 80, 6472-6479.
100. Kim, J.; Johnson, M.; Hill, P.; Gale, B.K. Microfluidic Sample Preparation: Cell Lysis and Nucleic Acid Purification. Integr. Biol. 2009, 1, 574-586.
101. Baek, S.-K.; Min, J.; Park, J.-H. Wireless Induction Heating in a Microfluidic Device for Cell Lysis. Lab Chip 2010, 10, 909-917.
102. Siegrist, J.; Gorkin, R.; Bastien, M.; Stewart, G.; Peytavi, R.; Kido, H.; Bergeron, M.G.; Madou, M. Validation of a Centrifugal Microfluidic Sample Lysis and Homogenization Platform for Nucleic Acid Extraction with Clinical Samples. Lab Chip 2010b, 10, 363-371.
103. Root, B.E.; Agarwal, A.K.; Kelso, D.M.; Barron, A.E. Purification of HIV RNA from Serum Using a Polymer Capture Matrix. Anal. Chem. 2011, 83, 982-988.
104. Zhang, C.; Xu, J.; Ma, W.; Zheng, W. PCR Microfluidic Devices for DNA Amplification. Biotechnol. Adv. 2006, 24, 243-284.
105. Zhang, Y.; Ozdemir, P. Microfluidic DNA Amplification-A Review. Anal. Chim. Acta 2009, 638, 115-125.
106. Cooney, C.G.; Sipes, D.; Thakore, N.; Holmberg, R.; Belgrader, P. A Plastic, Disposable Microfluidic Flow Cell for Coupled On-Chip PCR and Microarray Detection of Infectious Agents. Biomed. Microdevices 2011, DOI 10.1007/s10544-011-9584-9.
107. Marasso, S.L.; Giuri, E.; Canavese, G., Castagna, R.; Quaglio, M.; Ferrante, I.; Perrone, D.; Cocuzza, M. A Multilevel Lab on Chip Platform for DNA Analysis. Biomed. Microdevices 2011, 13, 19-27.
108. Sun, Y.; Perch-Nielsen, I.; Dufva, M.; Sabourin, D.; Bang, D.D.; Hogberg, J.; Wolff, A. Direct Immobilization of DNA Probes on Non-Modified Plastics by UV Irradiation and Integration in Microfluidic Devices for Rapid Bioassay. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2011, DOI 10.1007/s00216-011-5459-4.
109. Wang, L.; Li, P.C.H. Microfluidic DNA Microarray Analysis: a Review. Anal. Chim. Acta 2011, 687, 12-27.
110. Goff, D.A. Antimicrobial Stewardship: Bridging the Gap between Quality Care and Cost. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2011, 24 (suppl. 1), S11-S20.
111. Micek, S.T.; Reichley, R.M.; Kollef, M.H. Health Care-Associated Pneumonia (HCAP)-Empiric Antibiotics Targeting Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa Predict Optimal Outcome. Medicine 2011, 90, 390-395.
112. Dellinger, R.P.; Levy, M.M.; Carlet, J.M.; Bion, J.; Parker, M.M.; Jaeschke, R.; Reinhart, K.; Angus, D.C.; Brun-Buisson, C.; Beale, R.; Calandra, T.; Dhainaut, J.-F.; Gerlach, H.; Harvey, M.; Marini, J.J.; Marshall, J.; Ranieri, M.; Ramsay, G.; Sevransky, J.; Thompson, B.T.; Townsend, S.; Vender, J.S.; Zimmerman, J.L.; Vincent, J.-L.; for the International Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines Committee. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock: 2008. Crit. Care Med. 2008, 36, 296-327.
113. Brown, J.; Paladino, J.A. Impact of Rapid Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Polymerase Chain Reaction Testing on Mortality and Cost Effectiveness in Hospitalized Patients with Bacteraemia. Pharmacoeconomics 2010, 28, 567-575.
114. Bauer, K.A.; West, J.E., Balada-Llasat, J.-M.; Pancholi, P.; Stevenson, K.B.; Goff, D.A. An Antimicrobial Stewardship Program's Impact with Rapid Polymerase Chain Reaction Methicillin Staphylococcus aureus/S. aureus Blood Culture Test in Patients with S. aureus Bacteremia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2010, 51, 1074-1080.
115. Paolucci, M.; Landini, M.P.; Sambri, V. Conventional and Molecular Techniques for the Early Diagnosis of Bacteraemia. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2010, 36S, S6-S16.
116. McGeer, A.J. Diagnostic Testing or Empirical Therapy for Patients Hospitalized with Suspected Influenza: What to Do? Clin. Infect. Dis. 2009, 48, S14-S19.
117. Infectious Diseases Society of America. An Unmet Medical Need: Rapid Molecular Diagnostics Tests for Respiratory Tract Infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2011, 52 (S4), S384-S395.
118. Shen, B.; Hwang, J. The Clinical Utility of Precision Medicine: Properly Assessing the Value of Emerging Diagnostic Tests. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2010, 88, 754-756.
119. Mirnezami, R.; Nicholson, J.; Darzi, A. Preparing for Precision Medicine. N. Engl. J. Med. 2012 366, 489-491.
120. Richmond, T.D. The Current Status and Future Potential of Personalized Diagnostics: Streamlining a Customized Process. Biotechnol. Annu. Rev. 2008, 14, 411-422.
121. Ehrmeyer, S.S.; Laessig, R.H. Regulatory Compliance for Point-of-Care Testing: 2009 United States Perspective. Clin. Lab. Med. 2009, 29, 463-478.
122. Gibbs, J.N. Regulating Molecular Diagnostic Assays: Developing a New Regulatory Structure for a New Technology. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2011, 11, 367-381.
123. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008. Available online: http://www.genome.gov/24519851 (accessed in May 2012).
124. Glinskii, V.G.; Glinsky G.V. Emerging Genomic Technologies and the Concept of Personalized Medicine. Cell Cycle 2008, 7, 2278-2285.
125. Hudson, K.L. Genomics, Health Care, and Society. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 365, 1033-1041.
126. Rogowski, W. Current Impact of Gene Technology on Healthcare-A Map of Economic Assessments. Health Policy 2007, 80, 340-357.