Host biomarkers for distinguishing bacterial from non-bacterial causes of acute febrile illness: A comprehensive review

PLoS ONE

Volumn 11, Issue 8, 2016, Pages

  Kapasi, Anokhi J ^a   Dittrich, Sabine ^a   González, Iveth J ^a   Rodwell, Timothy C ^a  

^a FOUNDATION FOR INNOVATIVE NEW DIAGNOSTICS   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; PROCALCITONIN;

BACTERIAL INFECTION; BIOMETRY; CHECKLIST; CONTROLLED STUDY; FEVER; HUMAN; INCOME; LEUKOCYTE COUNT; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; PATHOGENESIS; POINT OF CARE TESTING; QUALITY CONTROL; RELIABILITY; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; TREATMENT OUTCOME; ACUTE DISEASE; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; BLOOD; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; MICROBIOLOGY; PROCEDURES;

ACUTE DISEASE; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; BIOMARKERS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DIAGNOSTIC TESTS, ROUTINE; FEVER; HUMANS;

EID: 84982295509     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19326203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160278     Document Type: Review

References (86)

1. Farrar J HP, Junghanss T, Kang G, Lalloo D, White NJ. Manson's Tropical Diseases. 22nd Edition ed. London, UK: Saunders; 2009.
2. Crump JA, Gove S, Parry CM. Management of adolescents and adults with febrile illness in resource limited areas. Bmj. 2011; 343:d4847. doi: 10.1136/bmj.d4847 PMID: 21824901; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3164889.
3. Hamilton JL, John SP. Evaluation of fever in infants and young children. American family physician. 2013; 87(4):254-60. PMID: 23418797.
4. Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, Storeygard A, Balk D, Gittleman JL, et al. Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature. 2008; 451(7181):990-3. doi: 10.1038/nature06536 PMID: 18288193.
5. WHO. WHO: Guidelines for the treatment of malaria (2e). 2nd edition. Geneva. World Health Organization, 2010.
6. WHO. WHO informal consultation on fever management in peripheral health care settings: a global review of evidence and practice. World Health Organization, 2013.
7. Chappuis F, Alirol E, d'Acremont V, Bottieau E, Yansouni CP. Rapid diagnostic tests for non-malarial febrile illness in the tropics. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013; 19(5):422-31. doi: 10.1111/1469-0691.12154 PMID: 23413992.
8. Crump JA, Morrissey AB, Nicholson WL, Massung RF, Stoddard RA, Galloway RL, et al. Etiology of severe non-malaria febrile illness in Northern Tanzania: a prospective cohort study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013; 7(7):e2324. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002324 PMID: 23875053; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3715424.
9. D'Acremont V, Kahama-Maro J, Swai N, Mtasiwa D, Genton B, Lengeler C. Reduction of anti-malarial consumption after rapid diagnostic tests implementation in Dar es Salaam: a before-after and cluster randomized controlled study. Malar J. 2011; 10:107. doi: 10.1186/1475-2875-10-107 PMID: 21529365; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3108934.
10. Mayxay M, Castonguay-Vanier J, Chansamouth V, Dubot-Peres A, Paris DH, Phetsouvanh R, et al. Causes of non-malarial fever in Laos: a prospective study. Lancet Glob Health. 2013; 1(1):e46-54. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(13)70008-1 PMID: 24748368; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3986032.
11. D'Acremont V, Kilowoko M, Kyungu E, Philipina S, Sangu W, Kahama-Maro J, et al. Beyond malaria - causes of fever in outpatient Tanzanian children. The New England journal of medicine. 2014; 370(9):809-17. Epub 2014/02/28. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1214482 PMID: 24571753.
12. Dupuy AM, Philippart F, Pean Y, Lasocki S, Charles PE, Chalumeau M, et al. Role of biomarkers in the management of antibiotic therapy: an expert panel review: I - currently available biomarkers for clinical use in acute infections. Ann Intensive Care. 2013; 3(1):22. doi: 10.1186/2110-5820-3-22 PMID: 23837559; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3708786.
13. Petti CA, Polage CR, Quinn TC, Ronald AR, Sande MA. Laboratory medicine in Africa: a barrier to effective health care. Clin Infect Dis. 2006; 42(3):377-82. doi: 10.1086/499363 PMID: 16392084.
14. Mohan A, Harikrishna J. Biomarkers for the diagnosis of bacterial infections: in pursuit of the 'Holy Grail'. Indian J Med Res. 2015; 141(3):271-3. PMID: 25963487; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4442324.
15. McCulloh R. Biomarkers in Sepsis and Severe Infection: Where Immunology Meets Diagnostics. J Immunodefic Disor. 2012; 1:1. http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2324-853X.1000e104.
16. Whiting P, Rutjes AW, Reitsma JB, Bossuyt PM, Kleijnen J. The development of QUADAS: a tool for the quality assessment of studies of diagnostic accuracy included in systematic reviews. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2003; 3:25. doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-3-25 PMID: 14606960; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC305345.
17. van der Meer V, Neven AK, van den Broek PJ, Assendelft WJ. Diagnostic value of C reactive protein in infections of the lower respiratory tract: systematic review. Bmj. 2005; 331(7507):26. doi: 10.1136/bmj.38483.478183.EB PMID: 15979984; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC558535.
18. Lijmer JG, Mol BW, Heisterkamp S, Bonsel GJ, Prins MH, van der Meulen JH, et al. Empirical evidence of design-related bias in studies of diagnostic tests. JAMA. 1999; 282(11):1061-6. PMID: 10493205.
19. Burdette AJ, Alvarez R. Evaluation of Innate Immune Biomarkers in Saliva for Diagnostic Potential of Bacterial and Viral Respiratory Infection. DTIC Document, 2014.
20. Oved K, Cohen A, Boico O, Navon R, Friedman T, Etshtein L, et al. A Novel Host-Proteome Signature for Distinguishing between Acute Bacterial and Viral Infections. PLoS One. 2015; 10(3):e0120012. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120012 PMID: 25785720; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4364938.
21. Chen Z, Wang Y, Zeng A, Chen L, Wu R, Chen B, et al. The clinical diagnostic significance of cerebrospinal fluid D-lactate for bacterial meningitis. Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry. 2012; 413(19-20):1512-5. Epub 2012/06/21. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2012.06.018 PMID: 22713513.
22. Galetto-Lacour A, Gervaix A. Identifying severe bacterial infection in children with fever without source. Expert review of anti-infective therapy. 2010; 8(11):1231-7. Epub 2010/11/16. doi: 10.1586/eri.10.118 PMID: 21073288.
23. Ibrahim KA, Abdel-Wahab AA, Ibrahim AS. Diagnostic value of serum procalcitonin levels in children with meningitis: a comparison with blood leukocyte count and C-reactive protein. JPMA The Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association. 2011; 61(4):346-51. Epub 2011/04/07. PMID: 21465970.
24. Koo CY, Eisenhut M. Towards evidence-based emergency medicine: best BETs from the Manchester Royal Infirmary. Can inflammatory markers distinguish streptococcal from viral tonsillitis? Emergency medicine journal: EMJ. 2011; 28(8):715-7. Epub 2011/07/27. doi: 10.1136/emj.2010.099531 PMID: 21788241.
25. Linder A, Akesson P, Brink M, Studahl M, Bjorck L, Christensson B. Heparin-binding protein: a diagnostic marker of acute bacterial meningitis. Critical care medicine. 2011; 39(4):812-7. Epub 2011/01/05. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318206c396 PMID: 21200320.
26. Rustici MC, Chiappini E, Salvadori M, Sollai S, Galli L, de Martino M. Clinical usefulness of the semi-quantitative procalcitonin test in the diagnosis of bacterial infections in a third level children's hospital. Clinical laboratory. 2011; 57(7-8):497-506. Epub 2011/09/06. PMID: 21888013.
27. Haran JP, Buglione-Corbett R, Lu S. Cytokine markers as predictors of type of respiratory infection in patients during the influenza season. The American journal of emergency medicine. 2013; 31(5):816-21. Epub 2013/03/14. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2013.01.030 PMID: 23481156.
28. Tamune H, Takeya H, Suzuki W, Tagashira Y, Kuki T, Honda H, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid/blood glucose ratio as an indicator for bacterial meningitis. The American journal of emergency medicine. 2014; 32(3):263-6. Epub 2013/12/24. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2013.11.030 PMID: 24361137.
29. Nuutila J, Jalava-Karvinen P, Hohenthal U, Kotilainen P, Pelliniemi TT, Nikoskelainen J, et al. A rapid flow cytometric method for distinguishing between febrile bacterial and viral infections. Journal of microbiological methods. 2013; 92(1):64-72. Epub 2012/11/17. doi: 10.1016/j.mimet.2012.11.005 PMID: 23154042.
30. Abdelmoez AT, Zaky DZ, Maher AM. Role of cerebrospinal fluid IL-8 as a marker for differentiation between acute bacterial and aseptic meningitis. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology. 2014; 44(1):205-10. Epub 2014/06/26. PMID: 24961026.
31. Viallon A, Desseigne N, Marjollet O, Birynczyk A, Belin M, Guyomarch S, et al. Meningitis in adult patients with a negative direct cerebrospinal fluid examination: value of cytochemical markers for differential diagnosis. Critical care. 2011; 15(3):R136. Epub 2011/06/08. doi: 10.1186/cc10254 PMID: 21645387; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3219005.
32. Mokuda S, Doi O, Takasugi K. Simultaneous quantitative analysis of the expression of CD64 and CD35 on neutrophils as markers to differentiate between bacterial and viral infections in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Modern rheumatology / the Japan Rheumatism Association. 2012; 22(5):750-7. Epub 2012/01/13. doi: 10.1007/s10165-011-0587-4 PMID: 22237765.
33. Chalupa P, Beran O, Herwald H, Kasprikova N, Holub M. Evaluation of potential biomarkers for the discrimination of bacterial and viral infections. Infection. 2011; 39(5):411-7. Epub 2011/07/02. doi: 10.1007/s15010-011-0126-4 PMID: 21720792.
34. Haran JP, Beaudoin FL, Suner S, Lu S. C-reactive protein as predictor of bacterial infection among patients with an influenza-like illness. The American journal of emergency medicine. 2013; 31(1):137-44. Epub 2012/09/05. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2012.06.026 PMID: 22944552.
35. Katoh S, Ikeda M, Shimizu H, Mouri K, Obase Y, Kobashi Y, et al. Increased levels of plasma galectin-9 in patients with influenza virus infection. The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine. 2014; 232(4):263-7. Epub 2014/04/04. PMID: 24695077.
36. Kossiva L, Soldatou A, Gourgiotis DI, Stamati L, Tsentidis C. Serum hepcidin: indication of its role as an "acute phase" marker in febrile children. Italian journal of pediatrics. 2013; 39:25. Epub 2013/04/27. doi: 10.1186/1824-7288-39-25 PMID: 23618075; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3660274.
37. Nuutila J, Jalava-Karvinen P, Hohenthal U, Kotilainen P, Pelliniemi TT, Nikoskelainen J, et al. Use of complement regulators, CD35, CD46, CD55, and CD59, on leukocytes as markers for diagnosis of viral and bacterial infections. Human immunology. 2013; 74(5):522-30. Epub 2013/02/05. doi: 10.1016/j.humimm.2013.01.011 PMID: 23376460.
38. Siahanidou T, Margeli A, Tsirogianni C, Charoni S, Giannaki M, Vavourakis E, et al. Clinical value of plasma soluble urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor levels in term neonates with infection or sepsis: a prospective study. Mediators of inflammation. 2014; 2014:375702. Epub 2014/06/03. doi: 10.1155/2014/375702 PMID: 24882949; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4026989.
39. Suarez NM, Bunsow E, Falsey AR, Walsh EE, Mejias A, Ramilo O. Superiority of Transcriptional Profiling Over Procalcitonin for Distinguishing Bacterial From Viral Lower Respiratory Tract Infections in Hospitalized Adults. The Journal of infectious diseases. 2015; 212(2):213-22. Epub 2015/01/29. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiv047 PMID: 25637350.
40. te Witt R, Hassing RJ, Petit PP, van Belkum A, van Genderen PJ. Procalcitonin and neopterin levels do not accurately distinguish bacterial from viral infections in ill-returned travellers with fever. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2012; 106(4):264-6. Epub 2012/02/24. doi: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2012.01.001 PMID: 22357400.
41. Bracken CD, Berbari EF, Hanssen AD, Mabry TM, Osmon DR, Sierra RJ. Systemic inflammatory markers and aspiration cell count may not differentiate bacterial from fungal prosthetic infections. Clinical orthopaedics and related research. 2014; 472(11):3291-4. Epub 2014/04/20. doi: 10.1007/s11999-014-3631-9 PMID: 24744131; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4182394.
42. Elsing C, Ernst S, Kayali N, Stremmel W, Harenberg S. Lipopolysaccharide binding protein, interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein in acute gastrointestinal infections: value as biomarkers to reduce unnecessary antibiotic therapy. Infection. 2011; 39(4):327-31. Epub 2011/04/28. doi: 10.1007/s15010-011-0117-5 PMID: 21523403.
43. Gibot S, Bene MC, Noel R, Massin F, Guy J, Cravoisy A, et al. Combination biomarkers to diagnose sepsis in the critically ill patient. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine. 2012; 186(1):65-71. Epub 2012/04/28. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201201-0037OC PMID: 22538802.
44. Kawamura M, Kusano A, Furuya A, Hanai N, Tanigaki H, Tomita A, et al. New sandwich-type enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for human MxA protein in a whole blood using monoclonal antibodies against GTP-binding domain for recognition of viral infection. Journal of clinical laboratory analysis. 2012; 26(3):174-83. Epub 2012/05/26. doi: 10.1002/jcla.21507 PMID: 22628233.
45. Mansour KM, Kuypers FA, Wang TN, Miller AM, Larkin SK, Morris CR. Secretory phospholipase A2: a marker of infection in febrile children presenting to a pediatric ED. The American journal of emergency medicine. 2011; 29(9):1163-8. Epub 2010/08/17. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2010.06.024 PMID: 20708879; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3601899.
46. Piacentini E, Sanchez B, Arauzo V, Calbo E, Cuchi E, Nava JM. Procalcitonin levels are lower in intensive care unit patients with H1N1 influenza A virus pneumonia than in those with community-acquired bacterial pneumonia. A pilot study. Journal of critical care. 2011; 26(2):201-5. Epub 2010/09/04. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2010.07.009 PMID: 20813489.
47. Sklavou R, Karavanaki K, Critselis E, Kossiva L, Giannaki M, Tsolia M, et al. Variation of serum C-reactive protein (CRP) over time in pediatric cancer patients with febrile illness and its relevance to identified pathogen. Clinical biochemistry. 2012; 45(15):1178-82. Epub 2012/07/24. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2012.07.088 PMID: 22820435.
48. Weh J, Antoni C, Weiss C, Findeisen P, Ebert M, Bocker U. Discriminatory potential of C-reactive protein, cytokines, and fecal markers in infectious gastroenteritis in adults. Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease. 2013; 77(1):79-84. Epub 2013/06/19. doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.05.005 PMID: 23773676.
49. Sykora J, Siala K, Huml M, Varvarovska J, Schwarz J, Pomahacova R. Evaluation of faecal calprotectin as a valuable non-invasive marker in distinguishing gut pathogens in young children with acute gastroenteritis. Acta paediatrica. 2010; 99(9):1389-95. Epub 2010/04/24. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.01843.x PMID: 20412103.
50. Chaudhary N, Kosaraju K, Bhat K, Bairy I, Borker A. Significance of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP) in children and young adults with febrile neutropenia during chemotherapy for cancer: a prospective study. Journal of pediatric hematology/oncology. 2012; 34(8):617-23. Epub 2012/09/18. doi: 10.1097/MPH.0b013e3182677fc6 PMID: 22983415.
51. Jesse S, Steinacker P, Lehnert S, Sdzuj M, Cepek L, Tumani H, et al. A proteomic approach for the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis. PLoS One. 2010; 5(4):e10079. Epub 2010/04/14. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010079 PMID: 20386697; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2851643.
52. Bjerk SM, Baker JV, Emery S, Neuhaus J, Angus B, Gordin FM, et al. Biomarkers and bacterial pneumonia risk in patients with treated HIV infection: a case-control study. PLoS One. 2013; 8(2):e56249. Epub 2013/03/05. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056249 PMID: 23457535; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3574140.
53. Brodska H, Malickova K, Adamkova V, Benakova H, Stastna MM, Zima T. Significantly higher procalcitonin levels could differentiate Gram-negative sepsis from Gram-positive and fungal sepsis. Clinical and experimental medicine. 2013; 13(3):165-70. Epub 2012/05/31. doi: 10.1007/s10238-012-0191-8 PMID: 22644264.
54. Conroy AL, Gelvez M, Hawkes M, Rajwans N, Liles WC, Villar-Centeno LA, et al. Host biomarkers distinguish dengue from leptospirosis in Colombia: a case-control study. BMC infectious diseases. 2014; 14:35. Epub 2014/01/22. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-14-35 PMID: 24444080; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3909480.
55. Cuquemelle E, Soulis F, Villers D, Roche-Campo F, Ara Somohano C, Fartoukh M, et al. Can procalcitonin help identify associated bacterial infection in patients with severe influenza pneumonia? A multicentre study. Intensive care medicine. 2011; 37(5):796-800. Epub 2011/03/04. doi: 10.1007/s00134-011-2189-1 PMID: 21369807.
56. Diez-Padrisa N, Bassat Q, Machevo S, Quinto L, Morais L, Nhampossa T, et al. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein for invasive bacterial pneumonia diagnosis among children in Mozambique, a malaria-endemic area. PLoS One. 2010; 5(10):e13226. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013226 PMID: 20976241; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2954814.
57. Engel MF, Paling FP, Hoepelman AI, van der Meer V, Oosterheert JJ. Evaluating the evidence for the implementation of C-reactive protein measurement in adult patients with suspected lower respiratory tract infection in primary care: a systematic review. Family practice. 2012; 29(4):383-93. Epub 2011/12/14. doi: 10.1093/fampra/cmr119 PMID: 22159030.
58. Espana PP, Capelastegui A, Bilbao A, Diez R, Izquierdo F, Lopez de Goicoetxea MJ, et al. Utility of two biomarkers for directing care among patients with non-severe community-acquired pneumonia. European journal of clinical microbiology & infectious diseases: official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 2012; 31(12):3397-405. Epub 2012/09/27. doi: 10.1007/s10096-012-1708-5 PMID: 23010902.
59. Guiddir T, Deghmane AE, Giorgini D, Taha MK. Lipocalin 2 in cerebrospinal fluid as a marker of acute bacterial meningitis. BMC infectious diseases. 2014; 14:276. Epub 2014/06/03. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-14-276 PMID: 24885531; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4033677.
60. Koya J, Nannya Y, Ichikawa M, Kurokawa M. The clinical role of procalcitonin in hematopoietic SCT. Bone marrow transplantation. 2012; 47(10):1326-31. Epub 2012/02/22. doi: 10.1038/bmt.2012.18 PMID: 22343672.
61. Oguz SS, Sipahi E, Dilmen U. C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 responses for differentiating fungal and bacterial aetiology in late-onset neonatal sepsis. Mycoses. 2011; 54(3):212-6. Epub 2009/11/06. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2009.01802.x PMID: 19889172.
62. Pfister R, Kochanek M, Leygeber T, Brun-Buisson C, Cuquemelle E, Machado MB, et al. Procalcitonin for diagnosis of bacterial pneumonia in critically ill patients during 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic: a prospective cohort study, systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis. Critical care. 2014; 18(2):R44. Epub 2014/03/13. doi: 10.1186/cc13760 PMID: 24612487; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPmc4056761.
63. Falsey AR, Becker KL, Swinburne AJ, Nylen ES, Snider RH, Formica MA, et al. Utility of serum procalcitonin values in patients with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a cautionary note. International journal of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 2012; 7:127-35. Epub 2012/03/09. doi: 10.2147/COPD.S29149 PMID: 22399852; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3292390.
64. Laham JL, Breheny PJ, Gardner BM, Bada H. Procalcitonin to predict bacterial coinfection in infants with acute bronchiolitis: a preliminary analysis. Pediatric emergency care. 2014; 30(1):11-5. Epub 2013/12/25. doi: 10.1097/PEC.0000000000000026 PMID: 24365727.
65. ten Oever J, Tromp M, Bleeker-Rovers CP, Joosten LA, Netea MG, Pickkers P, et al. Combination of biomarkers for the discrimination between bacterial and viral lower respiratory tract infections. The Journal of infection. 2012; 65(6):490-5. Epub 2012/08/18. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2012.08.004 PMID: 22898387.
66. Wu MH, Lin CC, Huang SL, Shih HM, Wang CC, Lee CC, et al. Can procalcitonin tests aid in identifying bacterial infections associated with influenza pneumonia? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Influenza and other respiratory viruses. 2013; 7(3):349-55. Epub 2012/06/08. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-2659.2012.00386.x PMID: 22672284.
67. Pinto VL Junior, Rebelo MC, Gomes RN, Assis EF, Castro-Faria-Neto HC, Boia MN. IL-6 and IL-8 in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with aseptic meningitis and bacterial meningitis: their potential role as a marker for differential diagnosis. The Brazilian journal of infectious diseases: an official publication of the Brazilian Society of Infectious Diseases. 2011; 15(2):156-8. Epub 2011/04/20. PMID: 21503403.
68. Cid J, Aguinaco R, Sanchez R, Garcia-Pardo G, Llorente A. Neutrophil CD64 expression as marker of bacterial infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of infection. 2010; 60(5):313-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2010.02.013 PMID: 20206205.
69. Huy NT, Thao NT, Diep DT, Kikuchi M, Zamora J, Hirayama K. Cerebrospinal fluid lactate concentration to distinguish bacterial from aseptic meningitis: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Critical care. 2010; 14(6):R240. Epub 2011/01/05. doi: 10.1186/cc9395 PMID: 21194480; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3220013.
70. Prilutsky D, Shneider E, Shefer A, Rogachev B, Lobel L, Last M, et al. Differentiation between viral and bacterial acute infections using chemiluminescent signatures of circulating phagocytes. Analytical chemistry. 2011; 83(11):4258-65. Epub 2011/04/27. doi: 10.1021/ac200596f PMID: 21517122.
71. Pupek M, Jasonek J, Katnik-Prastowska I. EDA-containing fibronectin levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of children with meningitis. Annals of clinical and laboratory science. 2013; 43(3):257-66. Epub 2013/07/26. PMID: 23884219.
72. Hu X, Yu J, Crosby SD, Storch GA. Gene expression profiles in febrile children with defined viral and bacterial infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2013; 110(31):12792-7. Epub 2013/07/17. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1302968110 PMID: 23858444; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3732941.
73. Smith CL, Dickinson P, Forster T, Craigon M, Ross A, Khondoker MR, et al. Identification of a human neonatal immune-metabolic network associated with bacterial infection. Nature communications. 2014; 5:4649. Epub 2014/08/15. doi: 10.1038/ncomms5649 PMID: 25120092; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4143936.
74. Zaas AK, Burke T, Chen M, McClain M, Nicholson B, Veldman T, et al. A host-based RT-PCR gene expression signature to identify acute respiratory viral infection. Science translational medicine. 2013; 5(203):203ra126. Epub 2013/09/21. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3006280 PMID: 24048524; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4286889.
75. Craig JC, Williams GJ, Jones M, Codarini M, Macaskill P, Hayen A, et al. The accuracy of clinical symptoms and signs for the diagnosis of serious bacterial infection in young febrile children: prospective cohort study of 15 781 febrile illnesses. Bmj. 2010; 340:c1594. Epub 2010/04/22. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c1594 PMID: 20406860; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2857748.
76. Huy NT, Thao NT, Tuan NA, Khiem NT, Moore CC, Thi Ngoc Diep D, et al. Performance of thirteen clinical rules to distinguish bacterial and presumed viral meningitis in Vietnamese children. PLoS One. 2012; 7(11):e50341. Epub 2012/12/05. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050341 PMID: 23209715; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3508924.
77. McHugh L, Seldon TA, Brandon RA, Kirk JT, Rapisarda A, Sutherland AJ, et al. A Molecular Host Response Assay to Discriminate Between Sepsis and Infection-Negative Systemic Inflammation in Critically Ill Patients: Discovery and Validation in Independent Cohorts. PLoS Med. 2015; 12(12):e1001916. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001916 PMID: 26645559; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4672921.
78. Sambursky R, Shapiro N. Evaluation of a combined MxA and CRP point-of-care immunoassay to identify viral and/or bacterial immune response in patients with acute febrile respiratory infection. Eur Clin Respir J. 2015; 2:28245. doi: 10.3402/ecrj.v2.28245 PMID: 26672961.
79. Gething PW, Kirui VC, Alegana VA, Okiro EA, Noor AM, Snow RW. Estimating the number of paediatric fevers associated with malaria infection presenting to Africa's public health sector in 2007. PLoS Med. 2010; 7(7):e1000301. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000301 PMID: 20625548; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC2897768.
80. Markic J, Kovacevic T, Krzelj V, Bosnjak N, Sapunar A. Lab-score is a valuable predictor of serious bacterial infection in infants admitted to hospital. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2015; 127(23-24):942-7. doi: 10.1007/s00508-015-0831-6 PMID: 26242450.
81. Lubell Y, Blacksell SD, Dunachie S, Tanganuchitcharnchai A, Althaus T, Watthanaworawit W, et al. Performance of C-reactive protein and procalcitonin to distinguish viral from bacterial and malarial causes of fever in Southeast Asia. BMC infectious diseases. 2015; 15(1):511. doi: 10.1186/s12879-015-1272-6 PMID: 26558692; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4642613.
82. Zhu F, Jiang Z, Li WH, Wei HY, Su GD. Clinical significance of serum procalcitonin level monitoring on early diagnosis of severe pneumonia on children. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2015; 19(22):4300-3. PMID: 26636517.
83. Duman M, Gencpinar P, Bicmen M, Arslan N, Ozden O, Uzum O, et al. Fecal calprotectin: can be used to distinguish between bacterial and viral gastroenteritis in children? The American journal of emergency medicine. 2015; 33(10):1436-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2015.07.007 PMID: 26233616.
84. Jukic T, Ihan A, Stubljar D. Dynamics of inflammation biomarkers C-reactive protein, leukocytes, neutrophils, and CD64 on neutrophils before and after major surgical procedures to recognize potential postoperative infection. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2015; 75(6):500-7. doi: 10.3109/00365513.2015.1057759 PMID: 26114621.
85. Guo SY, Zhou Y, Hu QF, Yao J, Wang H. Procalcitonin is a marker of gram-negative bacteremia in patients with sepsis. Am J Med Sci. 2015; 349(6):499-504. doi: 10.1097/MAJ.0000000000000477 PMID: 25992537; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4450899.
86. Rambaud-Althaus C, Shao AF, Kahama-Maro J, Genton B, d'Acremont V. Managing the Sick Child in the Era of Declining Malaria Transmission: Development of ALMANACH, an Electronic Algorithm for Appropriate Use of Antimicrobials. PloS one. 2015; 10(7):e0127674. Epub 2015/07/15. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127674 PMID: 26161753; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4498609.