Using virtual reality to investigate psychological processes and mechanisms associated with the onset and maintenance of psychosis: a systematic review

Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology

Volumn 51, Issue 7, 2016, Pages 921-936

  Valmaggia, Lucia R ^a,b   Day, Fern ^a,c   Rus Calafell, Mar ^a,b  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b SOUTH LONDON AND MAUDSLEY NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^c CITY UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Adverse life events; Daily stressors; Stress sensitivity, psychosis; Virtual reality

Indexed keywords

COMPUTER INTERFACE; HUMAN; PSYCHOLOGY; PSYCHOSIS; VIRTUAL REALITY EXPOSURE THERAPY;

HUMANS; PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS; USER-COMPUTER INTERFACE; VIRTUAL REALITY EXPOSURE THERAPY;

EID: 84978628240     PISSN: 09337954     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00127-016-1245-0     Document Type: Review

References (96)

1. Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Freeman D, Bebbington PE (2001) A cognitive model of the positive symptoms of psychosis. Psychol Med 31(2):189–195
2. Garety PA, Bebbington P, Fowler D, Freeman D, Kuipers E (2007) Implications for neurobiological research of cognitive models of psychosis: a theoretical paper. Psychol Med 37(10):1377–1391. doi:10.1017/S003329170700013X
3. Freeman D, Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Bebbington PE (2002) A cognitive model of persecutory delusions. Br J Clin Psychol/Br Psychol Soc 41(Pt 4):331–347
4. Bentall RP, Fernyhough C, Morrison AP, Lewis S, Corcoran R (2007) Prospects for a cognitive-developmental account of psychotic experiences. Br J Clin Psychol/Br Psychol Soc 46(Pt 2):155–173. doi:10.1348/014466506X123011
5. Morrison AP, Wells A (2003) A comparison of metacognitions in patients with hallucinations, delusions, panic disorder, and non-patient controls. Behav Res Ther 41(2):251–256
6. Van Dam DS, Van Nierop M, Viechtbauer W, Velthorst E, Van Winkel R, Bruggeman R, Cahn W, De Haan L, Kahn RS, Meijer CJ, Myin-Germeys I, Van Os J, Wiersma D (2015) Childhood abuse and neglect in relation to the presence and persistence of psychotic and depressive symptomatology. Psychol Med 45(7):1363–1377. doi:10.1017/S0033291714001561
7. Pariante CM (2015) Psychoneuroimmunology or immunopsychiatry? Lancet Psychiatry 2(3):197–199. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00042-5
8. Aiello G, Horowitz M, Hepgul N, Pariante CM, Mondelli V (2012) Stress abnormalities in individuals at risk for psychosis: a review of studies in subjects with familial risk or with “at risk” mental state. Psychoneuroendocrinology 37(10):1600–1613. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.05.003
9. Walker E, Mittal V, Tessner K (2008) Stress and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in the developmental course of schizophrenia. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 4:189–216. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141248
10. Day FL, Valmaggia LR, Mondelli V, Papadopoulos A, Papadopoulos I, Pariante CM, McGuire P (2014) Blunted cortisol awakening response in people at ultra high risk of developing psychosis. Schizophr Res 158(1–3):25–31. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2014.06.041
11. Lazarus RS (1991) Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion. Am Psychol 46(8):819–834
12. Corcoran C, Walker E, Huot R, Mittal V, Tessner K, Kestler L, Malaspina D (2003) The stress cascade and schizophrenia: etiology and onset. Schizophr Bull 29(4):671–692
13. Zubin J, Spring B (1977) Vulnerability–a new view of schizophrenia. J Abnorm Psychol 86(2):103–126
14. Lederbogen F, Kirsch P, Haddad L, Streit F, Tost H, Schuch P, Wust S, Pruessner JC, Rietschel M, Deuschle M, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2011) City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans. Nature 474(7352):498–501. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v474/n7352/abs/nature10190-f1.2.html (supplementary-information)
15. Allardyce J, Gilmour H, Atkinson J, Rapson T, Bishop J, McCreadie RG (2005) Social fragmentation, deprivation and urbanicity: relation to first-admission rates for psychoses. Br J Psychiatry 187:401–4016
16. Vassos E, Pedersen CB, Murray RM, Collier DA, Lewis CM (2012) Meta-analysis of the association of urbanicity with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 38(6):1118–1123. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs096
17. Morgan C, Hutchinson G (2010) The social determinants of psychosis in migrant and ethnic minority populations: a public health tragedy. Psychol Med 40(5):705–709. doi:10.1017/S0033291709005546
18. Seeman MV (2011) Canada: psychosis in the immigrant Caribbean population. Int J Soc Psychiatry 57(5):462–470. doi:10.1177/0020764010365979
19. Boydell J, van Os J, McKenzie K, Allardyce J, Goel R, McCreadie RG, Murray RM (2001) Incidence of schizophrenia in ethnic minorities in London: ecological study into interactions with environment. BMJ 323(7325):1336–1338
20. Das-Munshi J, Becares L, Boydell JE, Dewey ME, Morgan C, Stansfeld SA, Prince MJ (2012) Ethnic density as a buffer for psychotic experiences: findings from a national survey (EMPIRIC). Br J Psychiatry 201(4):282–290. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.102376
21. Karlsen S, Nazroo JY, McKenzie K, Bhui K, Weich S (2005) Racism, psychosis and common mental disorder among ethnic minority groups in England. Psychol Med 35(12):1795–1803. doi:10.1017/S0033291705005830
22. Veling W, Selten JP, Susser E, Laan W, Mackenbach JP, Hoek HW (2007) Discrimination and the incidence of psychotic disorders among ethnic minorities in The Netherlands. Int J Epidemiol 36(4):761–768. doi:10.1093/ije/dym085
23. Stowkowy J, Liu L, Cadenhead KS, Cannon TD, Cornblatt BA, McGlashan TH, Perkins DO, Seidman LJ, Tsuang MT, Walker EF, Woods SW, Bearden CE, Mathalon DH, Addington J (2016) Early traumatic experiences, perceived discrimination and conversion to psychosis in those at clinical high risk for psychosis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiol 51(4):497–503. doi:10.1007/s00127-016-1182-y
24. Lereya ST, Copeland WE, Costello EJ, Wolke D (2015) Adult mental health consequences of peer bullying and maltreatment in childhood: two cohorts in two countries. Lancet Psychiatry 2(6):524–531. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00165-0
25. Arseneault L, Cannon M, Fisher HL, Polanczyk G, Moffitt TE, Caspi A (2011) Childhood trauma and children’s emerging psychotic symptoms: a genetically sensitive longitudinal cohort study. Am J Psychiatry 168(1):65–72. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10040567
26. Lukoff D, Snyder K, Ventura J, Nuechterlein KH (1984) Life events, familial stress, and coping in the developmental course of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 10(2):258–292
27. Norman RMG, Malla AK (1993) Stressful life events and schizophrenia. II: Conceptual and methodological issues. Br J Psychiatry 162 (FEB.):166–174
28. Myin-Germeys I, Krabbendam L, Delespaul PAEG, Van Os J (2003) Do life events have their effect on psychosis by influencing the emotional reactivity to daily life stress? Psychol Med 33(2):327–333
29. Lee SY, Kim KR, Park JY, Park JS, Kim B, Kang JI, Lee E, An SK, Kwon JS (2011) Coping strategies and their relationship to psychopathologies in people at ultra high-risk for psychosis and with schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 199(2):106–110. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3182083b96
30. Jalbrzikowski M, Sugar CA, Zinberg J, Bachman P, Cannon TD, Bearden CE (2014) Coping styles of individuals at clinical high risk for developing psychosis. Early intervention in psychiatry 8(1):68–76. doi:10.1111/eip.12005
31. Masillo A, Day F, Laing J, Howes O, Fusar-Poli P, Byrne M, Bhattacharyya S, Fiori Nastro P, Girardi P, McGuire PK, Valmaggia LR (2012) Interpersonal sensitivity in the at-risk mental state for psychosis. Psychol Med 42(9):1835–1845. doi:10.1017/S0033291711002996
32. Boyce P, Parker G (1989) Development of a scale to measure interpersonal sensitivity. Australasian Psychiatry 23(3):341–351
33. Masillo A, Valmaggia LR, Saba R, Brandizzi M, Lindau JF, Solfanelli A, Curto M, Narilli F, Telesforo L, Kotzalidis GD, Di Pietro D, D’Alema M, Girardi P, Fiori Nastro P (2016) Interpersonal sensitivity and functioning impairment in youth at ultra-high risk for psychosis. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 25(1):7–16. doi:10.1007/s00787-015-0692-6
34. Tiernan B, Tracey R, Shannon C (2014) Paranoia and self-concepts in psychosis: a systematic review of the literature. Psychiatry Res 216(3):303–313. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.02.003
35. Lincoln TM, Mehl S, Ziegler M, Kesting ML, Exner C, Rief W (2010) Is fear of others linked to an uncertain sense of self? The relevance of self-worth, interpersonal self-concepts, and dysfunctional beliefs to paranoia. Behav Ther 41(2):187–197. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2009.02.004
36. van Os J, Linscott RJ, Myin-Germeys I, Delespaul P, Krabbendam L (2009) A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: evidence for a psychosis proneness-persistence-impairment model of psychotic disorder. Psychol Med 39(2):179–195. doi:10.1017/S0033291708003814
37. Kelleher I, Devlin N, Wigman JT, Kehoe A, Murtagh A, Fitzpatrick C, Cannon M (2014) Psychotic experiences in a mental health clinic sample: implications for suicidality, multimorbidity and functioning. Psychol Med 44(8):1615–1624. doi:10.1017/S0033291713002122
38. Kelleher I, Wigman JT, Harley M, O’Hanlon E, Coughlan H, Rawdon C, Murphy J, Power E, Higgins NM, Cannon M (2015) Psychotic experiences in the population: association with functioning and mental distress. Schizophr Res 165(1):9–14. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2015.03.020
39. Wigman JT, Devlin N, Kelleher I, Murtagh A, Harley M, Kehoe A, Fitzpatrick C, Cannon M (2014) Psychotic symptoms, functioning and coping in adolescents with mental illness. BMC Psychiatry 14:97. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-14-97
40. Fusar-Poli P, Borgwardt S, Bechdolf A, Addington J, Riecher-Rossler A, Schultze-Lutter F, Keshavan M, Wood S, Ruhrmann S, Seidman LJ, Valmaggia L, Cannon T, Velthorst E, De Haan L, Cornblatt B, Bonoldi I, Birchwood M, McGlashan T, Carpenter W, McGorry P, Klosterkotter J, McGuire P, Yung A (2013) The psychosis high-risk state: a comprehensive state-of-the-art review. JAMA Psychiatry 70(1):107–120. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.269
41. Bentall RP, de Sousa P, Varese F, Wickham S, Sitko K, Haarmans M, Read J (2014) From adversity to psychosis: pathways and mechanisms from specific adversities to specific symptoms. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 49(7):1011–1022. doi:10.1007/s00127-014-0914-0
42. Freeman D, Garety PA (2000) Comments on the content of persecutory delusions: does the definition need clarification? Br J Clin Psychol/Br Psychol Soc 39(Pt 4):407–414
43. Freeman D, Pugh K, Antley A, Slater M, Bebbington P, Gittins M, Dunn G, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Garety P (2008) Virtual reality study of paranoid thinking in the general population. Br J Psychiatry: J Ment Sci 192(4):258–263. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.044677
44. Garety PA, Everitt BS, Hemsley DR (1988) The characteristics of delusions: a cluster analysis of deluded subjects. Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci 237(2):112–114
45. Freeman D (2007) Suspicious minds: the psychology of persecutory delusions. Clin Psychol Rev 27(4):425–457. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.10.004
46. Myin-Germeys I, Oorschot M, Collip D, Lataster J, Delespaul P, van Os J (2009) Experience sampling research in psychopathology: opening the black box of daily life. Psychol Med 39(9):1533–1547. doi:10.1017/S0033291708004947
47. Reininghaus U, Depp CA, Myin-Germeys I (2016) Ecological interventionist causal models in psychosis: targeting psychological mechanisms in daily life. Schizophr Bull 42(2):264–269. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbv193
48. Rizzo A, Buckwalter G, Forbell E, Reist C, Difede J, Rothbaum BO, Lange B, Koenig S, Talbot S (2013) Virtual reality applications to address the wounds of war. Psychiatric Annals 43(3):123–138. doi:10.3928/00485713-20130306-08
49. Slater M (2004) Presence and emotions. Cyberpsychol Behav 7 (1):121. doi:10.1089/109493104322820200 (author reply 123)
50. Parsons TD, Courtney CG, Arizmendi B, Dawson M (2011) Virtual reality stroop task for neurocognitive assessment. Stud Health Technol Inform 163:433–439
51. Seidel RJ, Chatelier PR (2013) Virtual reality, training’s future?: perspectives on virtual reality and related emerging technologies, vol 6. Springer Science & Business Media
52. Rizzo A, Kim GJ (2005) A SWOT analysis of the field of virtual reality rehabilitation and therapy. Presence, Teleperators Virtual Environ 14:119–146
53. Thomas BH, Ciliska D, Dobbins M, Micucci SA (2004) A Process for Systematically Reviewing the Literature: providing the Research Evidence for Public Health Nursing Interventions. Worldviews Evid Based Nurs 1(3):176–184
54. Freeman D (2008) Studying and treating schizophrenia using virtual reality: a new paradigm. Schizophr Bull 34(4):605–610
55. Valmaggia LR, Day FL, Kroll J, Laing J, Byrne M, Fusar-Poli P, McGuire P (2015) Bullying victimisation and paranoid ideation in people at ultra high risk for psychosis. Schizophr Res 168(1–2):68–73
56. Freeman D, Antley A, Ehlers A, Dunn G, Thompson C, Vorontsova N, Garety P, Kuipers E, Glucksman E, Slater M (2014) The use of immersive Virtual Reality (VR) to predict the occurrence 6 months later of paranoid thinking and posttraumatic stress symptoms assessed by self-report and interviewer methods: a study of individuals who have been physically assaulted. Psychol Assess 26(3):841–847
57. Freeman D, Thompson C, Vorontsova N, Dunn G, Carter LA, Garety P, Kuipers E, Slater M, Antley A, Glucksman E, Ehlers A (2013) Paranoia and post-traumatic stress disorder in the months after a physical assault: a longitudinal study examining shared and differential predictors. Psychol Med 43(12):2673–2684
58. Shaikh M, Ellett L, Dutt A, Day F, Laing K, Kroll J, Pterella S, McGuire P, Valmaggia L (2016) Perceived ethnic discrimination and persecutory paranoia in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis. Psychiatry Res 241:309–314
59. Valmaggia LR, Day F, Garety P, Freeman D, Antley A, Slater M, Swapp D, Myin-Germeys I, McGuire P (2015) Social defeat predicts paranoid appraisals in people at high risk for psychosis. Schizophr Res 168(1–2):16–22
60. Fornells-Ambrojo M, Elenbaas M, Barker C, Swapp D, Navarro X, Rovira A, Sanahuja JMT, Slater M (2016) Hypersensitivity to contingent behavior in paranoia: a new virtual reality paradigm. J Nerv Ment Dis 204(2):148–152
61. Freeman D, Slater M, Bebbington PE, Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Met A, Read CM, Jordan J, Vinayagamoorthy V (2003) Can virtual reality be used to investigate persecutory ideation? J Nerv Ment Dis 191(8):509–514
62. Freeman D, Garety PA, Bebbington P, Slater M, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Green C, Jordan J, Ray K, Dunn G (2005) The psychology of persecutory ideation II: a virtual reality experimental study. J Nerv Ment Dis 193(5):309–315
63. Valmaggia LR, Freeman D, Green C, Garety P, Swapp D, Antley A, Prescott C, Fowler D, Kuipers E, Bebbington P, Slater M, Broome M, McGuire PK (2007) Virtual reality and paranoid ideations in people with an ‘at-risk mental state’ for psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 191(SUPPL. 51):s63–s68
64. Freeman D, Pugh K, Vorontsova N, Antley A, Slater M (2010) Testing the continuum of delusional beliefs: an experimental study using virtual reality. J Abnorm Psychol 119(1):83–92
65. Veling W, Brinkman WP, Dorrestijn E, van der Gaag M (2014) Virtual reality experiments linking social environment and psychosis: a pilot study. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 17(3):191–195
66. Veling W, Pot-Kolder R, Counotte J, van Os J, van der Gaag M (2016) Environmental Social Stress. A Virtual Reality Study. Schizophr Bull, Paranoia and Psychosis Liability. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbw031
67. Atherton S, Antley A, Evans N, Cernis E, Lister R, Dunn G, Slater M, Freeman D (2016) Self-confidence and paranoia: an experimental study using an immersive virtual reality social situation. Behav Cogn Psychother 44(1):56–64
68. Freeman D, Evans N, Lister R, Antley A, Dunn G, Slater M (2014) Height, social comparison, and paranoia: an immersive virtual reality experimental study. Psychiatry Res 218(3):348–352
69. Brinkman WP, Veling W, Dorrestijn E, Sandino G, Vakili V, van der Gaag M (2011) Virtual reality to study responses to social environmental stressors in individuals with and without psychosis. Stud Health Technol Inf 167:86–91
70. Freeman D, Gittins M, Pugh K, Antley A, Slater M, Dunn G (2008) What makes one person paranoid and another person anxious? The differential prediction of social anxiety and persecutory ideation in an experimental situation. Psychol Med 38(8):1121–1132
71. Goncalves R, Pedrozo AL, Coutinho ESF, Figueira I, Ventura P (2012) Efficacy of virtual reality exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD: a systematic review. PLoS One 7(12):e48469. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048469
72. Falconer CJ, Slater M, Rovira A, King JA, Gilbert P, Antley A, Brewin CR (2014) Embodying compassion: a virtual reality paradigm for overcoming excessive self-criticism. PLoS One 9(11):e111933. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111933
73. Falconer CJ, Rovira A, King JA, Gilbert P, Antley A, Fearon P, Ralph N, Slater M, Brewin CR (2016) Embodying self-compassion within virtual reality and its effects on patients with depression. Br J Psychiatry Open 2(1):74–80
74. Bebbington PE, Bhugra D, Brugha T, Singleton N, Farrell M, Jenkins R, Lewis G, Meltzer H (2004) Psychosis, victimisation and childhood disadvantage: evidence from the second British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity. Br J Psychiatry 185:220–226. doi:10.1192/bjp.185.3.220
75. Shakoor S, McGuire P, Cardno AG, Freeman D, Plomin R, Ronald A (2015) A shared genetic propensity underlies experiences of bullying victimization in late childhood and self-rated paranoid thinking in adolescence. Schizophr Bull 41(3):754–763. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu142
76. Goldman-Mellor S, Caspi A, Arseneault L, Ajala N, Ambler A, Danese A, Fisher H, Hucker A, Odgers C, Williams T, Wong C, Moffitt TE (2016) Committed to work but vulnerable: self-perceptions and mental health in NEET 18-year olds from a contemporary British cohort. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 57(2):196–203. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12459
77. Brett CMC, Peters ER, McGuire PK (2015) Which psychotic experiences are associated with a need for clinical care? Eur Psychiatry 30(5):648–654. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2014.12.005
78. Underwood R, Kumari V, Peters E (2016) Appraisals of psychotic experiences: an experimental investigation of symptomatic, remitted and non-need-for-care individuals. Psychol Med 46(6):1249–1263. doi:10.1017/S0033291715002780
79. Hardy A, Fowler D, Freeman D, Smith B, Steel C, Evans J, Garety P, Kuipers E, Bebbington P, Dunn G (2005) Trauma and hallucinatory experience in psychosis. J Nerv Ment Dis 193(8):501–507
80. Varese F, Smeets F, Drukker M, Lieverse R, Lataster T, Viechtbauer W, Read J, van Os J, Bentall RP (2012) Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr Bull 38(4):661–671. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs050
81. Eichenberg C, Wolters C (2012) Virtual realities in the treatment of mental disorders: a review of the current state of research. In: Eichenberg C (ed) Virtual reality in psychological, medical and pedagogical applications. InTech. doi:10.5772/50094. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/virtual-reality-in-psychological-medical-and-pedagogical-applications/virtual-realities-in-the-treatment-of-mental-disorders-a-review-of-the-current-state-of-research
82. Valmaggia LR, Latif L, Kempton MJ, Rus-Calafell M (2016) Virtual reality in the psychological treatment for mental health problems: a systematic review of recent evidence. Psychiatry Res 236:189–195
83. Veling W, Moritz S, van der Gaag M (2014) Brave new worlds-review and update on virtual reality assessment and treatment in psychosis. Schizophr Bull 40(6):1194–1197. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu125
84. Macedo M, Marques A, Queiros C (2015) Virtual reality in assessment and treatment of schizophrenia: a systematic review. Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria 64(1):70–81
85. Jiandani N, Nair SR, Shukla H (2014) Efficacy of virtual reality exposure therapy in the management of symptoms associated with post traumatic stress disorder. Value in Health 17(7):A572
86. Wiederhold BK, Wiederhold MD (2014) Virtual reality for posttraumatic stress disorder. In: Wiederhold BK, Bouchard S (eds) Advances in virtual reality and anxiety disorders. Springer, USA. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-8023-6
87. Rizzo A, Parsons TD, Lange B, Kenny P, Buckwalter JG, Rothbaum B, Difede J, Frazier J, Newman B, Williams J, Reger G (2011) Virtual reality goes to war: a brief review of the future of military behavioral healthcare. J Clin Psychol Med Settings 18(2):176–187
88. Fich LB, Jonsson P, Kirkegaard PH, Wallergard M, Garde AH, Hansen T (2014) Can architectural design alter the physiological reaction to psychosocial stress? A virtual TSST experiment. Physiol Behav 135:91–97
89. Johns LC, Kompus K, Connell M, Humpston C, Lincoln TM, Longden E, Preti A, Alderson-Day B, Badcock JC, Cella M, Fernyhough C, McCarthy-Jones S, Peters E, Raballo A, Scott J, Siddi S, Sommer IE, Laroi F (2014) Auditory verbal hallucinations in persons with and without a need for care. Schizophr Bull 40(SUPPL. 4):S255–S264. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu005
90. Stinson K, Valmaggia LR, Antley A, Slater M, Freeman D (2010) Cognitive triggers of auditory hallucinations: an experimental investigation. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 41(3):179–184. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.12.003
91. Brett C, Heriot-Maitland C, McGuire P, Peters E (2014) Predictors of distress associated with psychotic-like anomalous experiences in clinical and non-clinical populations. Br J Clin Psychol 53(2):213–227. doi:10.1111/bjc.12036
92. Ward TA, Gaynor KJ, Hunter MD, Woodruff PWR, Garety PA, Peters ER (2014) Appraisals and responses to experimental symptom analogues in clinical and nonclinical individuals with psychotic experiences. Schizophr Bull 40(4):845–855. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbt094
93. Freeman D, Garety P (2014) Advances in understanding and treating persecutory delusions: a review. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 49(8):1179–1189. doi:10.1007/s00127-014-0928-7
94. Howes OD, Murray RM (2014) Schizophrenia: an integrated sociodevelopmental-cognitive model. Lancet 383(9929):1677–1687. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62036-X
95. Myin-Germeys I, Delespaul P, van Os J (2005) Behavioural sensitization to daily life stress in psychosis. Psychol Med 35(5):733–741
96. Reininghaus U, Kempton MJ, Valmaggia L, Craig TK, Garety P, Onyejiaka A, Gayer-Anderson C, So SH, Hubbard K, Beards S, Dazzan P, Pariante C, Mondelli V, Fisher HL, Mills JG, Viechtbauer W, McGuire P, van Os J, Murray RM, Wykes T, Myin-Germeys I, Morgan C (2016) Stress sensitivity, aberrant salience, and threat anticipation in early psychosis: an experience sampling study. Schizophr Bull 42(3):712–722. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbv190