Stress abnormalities in individuals at risk for psychosis: A review of studies in subjects with familial risk or with " at risk" mental state

Psychoneuroendocrinology

Volumn 37, Issue 10, 2012, Pages 1600-1613

  Aiello, Giuliano ^a   Horowitz, Mark ^a   Hepgul, Nilay ^a   Pariante, Carmine M ^a   Mondelli, Valeria ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cortisol; Hippocampus; HPA; Pituitary; Psychosis; Relatives; Schizophrenia; Siblings; Stress; Ultra High Risk

Indexed keywords

CORTICOTROPIN; HYDROCORTISONE;

DISEASE MARKER; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; EMOTION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; HEREDITY; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; HYPOPHYSIS; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; LIFE STRESS; MENTAL HEALTH; MENTAL PATIENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSIS; RELATIVE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; STRESS; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS; RISK; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 84865541210     PISSN: 03064530     EISSN: 18733360     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.05.003     Document Type: Review

References (94)

1. Aas M., Dazzan P., Fisher H.L., Morgan C., Morgan K., Reichenberg A., Zanelli J., Fearon P., Jones P.B., Murray R.M., Pariante C.M. Childhood trauma and cognitive function in first-episode affective and non-affective psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 2011, 129(1):12-19.
2. Aas M., Dazzan P., Mondelli V., Toulopoulou T., Reichenberg A., Di Forti M., Fisher H.L., Handley R., Hepgul N., Marques T., Miorelli A., Taylor H., Russo M., Wiffen B., Papadopoulos A., Aitchison K.J., Morgan C., Murray R.M., Pariante C.M. Abnormal cortisol awakening response predicts worse cognitive function in patients with first-episode psychosis. Psychol. Med. 2011, 41(3):463-476.
3. Anacker C., Zunszain P.A., Carvalho L.A., Pariante C.M. The glucocorticoid receptor: pivot of depression and of antidepressant treatment?. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011, 36(3):415-425.
4. Anacker C., Zunszain P.A., Cattaneo A., Carvalho L.A., Garabedian M.J., Thuret S., Price J., Pariante C.M. Antidepressants increase human hippocampal neurogenesis by activating the glucocorticoid receptor. Mol. Psychiatry 2011, 16(7):738-750.
5. Bechdolf A., Thompson A., Nelson B., Cotton S., Simmons M.B., Amminger G.P., Leicester S., Francey S.M., McNab C., Krstev H., Sidis A., McGorry P.D., Yung A.R. Experience of trauma and conversion to psychosis in an ultra-high-risk (prodromal) group. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2010, 121(5):377-384.
6. Belvederi Murri M., Pariante C.M., Dazzan P., Hepgul N., Papadopoulos A.S., Zunszain P., Di Forti M., Murray R.M., Mondelli V. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and clinical symptoms in first-episode psychosis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2012, 37(5):629-644.
7. Bhojraj T.S., Francis A.N., Montrose D.M., Keshavan M.S. Grey matter and cognitive deficits in young relatives of schizophrenia patients. Neuroimage 2010, 54(Suppl. 1):S287-S292.
8. Boos H.B., Aleman A., Cahn W., Hulshoff Pol H., Kahn R.S. Brain volumes in relatives of patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2007, 64(3):297-304.
9. Breier A., Su T.P., Saunders R., Carson R.E., Kolachana B.S., de Bartolomeis A., Weinberger D.R., Weisenfeld N., Malhotra A.K., Eckelman W.C., Pickar D. Schizophrenia is associated with elevated amphetamine-induced synaptic dopamine concentrations: evidence from a novel positron emission tomography method. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1997, 94(6):2569-2574.
10. Broome M.R., Woolley J.B., Tabraham P., Johns L.C., Bramon E., Murray G.K., Pariante C., McGuire P.K., Murray R.M. What causes the onset of psychosis?. Schizophr. Res. 2005, 79(1):23-34.
11. Brunelin J., d'Amato T., van Os J., Cochet A., Suaud-Chagny M.F., Saoud M. Effects of acute metabolic stress on the dopaminergic and pituitary-adrenal axis activity in patients with schizophrenia, their unaffected siblings and controls. Schizophr. Res. 2008, 100(1-3):206-211.
12. Brunelin J., d'Amato T., Van Os J., Costes N., Suaud Chagny M.F., Saoud M. Increased left striatal dopamine transmission in unaffected siblings of schizophrenia patients in response to acute metabolic stress. Psychiatry Res. 2010, 181(2):130-135.
13. Buckley P.F., Mahadik S., Pillai A., Terry A. Neurotrophins and schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2007, 94(1-3):1-11.
14. Buehlmann E., Berger G.E., Aston J., Gschwandtner U., Pflueger M.O., Borgwardt S.J., Radue E.W., Riecher-Rossler A. Hippocampus abnormalities in at risk mental states for psychosis? A cross-sectional high resolution region of interest magnetic resonance imaging study. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2010, 44(7):447-453.
15. Buschlen J., Berger G.E., Borgwardt S.J., Aston J., Gschwandtner U., Pflueger M.O., Kuster P., Radu E.W., Stieglitz R.D., Riecher-Rossler A. Pituitary volume increase during emerging psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 2011, 125(1):41-48.
16. Collip D., Nicolson N.A., Lardinois M., Lataster T., van Os J., Myin-Germeys I. Daily cortisol, stress reactivity and psychotic experiences in individuals at above average genetic risk for psychosis. Psychol. Med. 2011, 41(11):2305-2315.
17. Corcoran C., Walker E., Huot R., Mittal V., Tessner K., Kestler L., Malaspina D. The stress cascade and schizophrenia: etiology and onset. Schizophr. Bull. 2003, 29(4):671-692.
18. Corcoran C.M., Smith C., McLaughlin D., Auther A., Malaspina D., Cornblatt B. HPA axis function and symptoms in adolescents at clinical high risk for schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2012, 135(1-3):170-174.
19. Dean K., Murray R.M. Environmental risk factors for psychosis. Dialog. Clin. Neurosci. 2005, 7(1):69-80.
20. Gallagher P., Young A.H. Mifepristone (RU-486) treatment for depression and psychosis: a review of the therapeutic implications. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 2006, 2(1):33-42.
21. Garner B., Berger G.E., Nicolo J.P., Mackinnon A., Wood S.J., Pariante C.M., Dazzan P., Proffitt T.M., Markulev C., Kerr M., McConchie M., Phillips L.J., Pantelis C., McGorry P.D. Pituitary volume and early treatment response in drug-naive first-episode psychosis patients. Schizophr. Res. 2009, 113(1):65-71.
22. Garner B., Pariante C.M., Wood S.J., Velakoulis D., Phillips L., Soulsby B., Brewer W.J., Smith D.J., Dazzan P., Berger G.E., Yung A.R., van den Buuse M., Murray R., McGorry P.D., Pantelis C. Pituitary volume predicts future transition to psychosis in individuals at ultra-high risk of developing psychosis. Biol. Psychiatry 2005, 58(5):417-423.
23. Goldman A.L., Pezawas L., Mattay V.S., Fischl B., Verchinski B.A., Zoltick B., Weinberger D.R., Meyer-Lindenberg A. Heritability of brain morphology related to schizophrenia: a large-scale automated magnetic resonance imaging segmentation study. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 63(5):475-483.
24. Gunduz-Bruce H., Szeszko P.R., Gueorguieva R., Ashtari M., Robinson D.G., Kane J.M., Bilder R.M. Cortisol levels in relation to hippocampal sub-regions in subjects with first episode schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2007, 94(1-3):281-287.
25. Habets P., Collip D., Myin-Germeys I., Gronenschild E., van Bronswijk S., Hofman P., Lataster T., Lardinois M., Nicolson N.A., van Os J., Marcelis M. Pituitary volume, stress reactivity and genetic risk for psychotic disorder. Psychol. Med. 2011, 1:1-11.
26. Hajek T., Gunde E., Bernier D., Slaney C., Propper L., Macqueen G., Duffy A., Alda M. Pituitary volumes in relatives of bipolar patients: high-risk study. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2008, 258(6):357-362.
27. Heckers S., Konradi C. Hippocampal pathology in schizophrenia. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 2010, 4:529-553.
28. Hellhammer D.H., Wust S., Kudielka B.M. Salivary cortisol as a biomarker in stress research. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009, 34(2):163-171.
29. Ho B.C., Magnotta V. Hippocampal volume deficits and shape deformities in young biological relatives of schizophrenia probands. Neuroimage 2010, 49(4):3385-3393.
30. Honea R.A., Meyer-Lindenberg A., Hobbs K.B., Pezawas L., Mattay V.S., Egan M.F., Verchinski B., Passingham R.E., Weinberger D.R., Callicott J.H. Is gray matter volume an intermediate phenotype for schizophrenia? A voxel-based morphometry study of patients with schizophrenia and their healthy siblings. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 63(5):465-474.
31. Hurlemann R., Jessen F., Wagner M., Frommann I., Ruhrmann S., Brockhaus A., Picker H., Scheef L., Block W., Schild H.H., Moller-Hartmann W., Krug B., Falkai P., Klosterkotter J., Maier W. Interrelated neuropsychological and anatomical evidence of hippocampal pathology in the at-risk mental state. Psychol. Med. 2008, 38(6):843-851.
32. Jung W.H., Jang J.H., Byun M.S., An S.K., Kwon J.S. Structural brain alterations in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis: a review of magnetic resonance imaging studies and future directions. J. Korean Med. Sci. 2010, 25(12):1700-1709.
33. Lataster T., Collip D., Lardinois M., van Os J., Myin-Germeys I. Evidence for a familial correlation between increased reactivity to stress and positive psychotic symptoms. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2010, 122(5):395-404.
34. Lawrie S.M., Whalley H.C., Abukmeil S.S., Kestelman J.N., Donnelly L., Miller P., Best J.J., Owens D.G., Johnstone E.C. Brain structure, genetic liability, and psychotic symptoms in subjects at high risk of developing schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 2001, 49(10):811-823.
35. Lee P.R., Brady D., Koenig J.I. Corticosterone alters N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunit mRNA expression before puberty. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 2003, 115(1):55-62.
36. Marcelis M., Cavalier E., Gielen J., Delespaul P., Van Os J. Abnormal response to metabolic stress in schizophrenia: marker of vulnerability or acquired sensitization?. Psychol. Med. 2004, 34(6):1103-1111.
37. Marx C.E., Bradford D.W., Hamer R.M., Naylor J.C., Allen T.B., Lieberman J.A., Strauss J.L., Kilts J.D. Pregnenolone as a novel therapeutic candidate in schizophrenia: emerging preclinical and clinical evidence. Neuroscience 2011, 191:78-90.
38. Mason B.L., Pariante C.M. The effects of antidepressants on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Drug News Perspect. 2006, 19(10):603-608.
39. McDonald C., Grech A., Toulopoulou T., Schulze K., Chapple B., Sham P., Walshe M., Sharma T., Sigmundsson T., Chitnis X., Murray R.M. Brain volumes in familial and non-familial schizophrenic probands and their unaffected relatives. Am. J. Med. Genet. 2002, 114(6):616-625.
40. McEwen B.S. Stress and hippocampal plasticity. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 1999, 22:105-122.
41. Meisenzahl E.M., Koutsouleris N., Gaser C., Bottlender R., Schmitt G.J., McGuire P., Decker P., Burgermeister B., Born C., Reiser M., Moller H.J. Structural brain alterations in subjects at high-risk of psychosis: a voxel-based morphometric study. Schizophr. Res. 2008, 102(1-3):150-162.
42. Miller T.J., McGlashan T.H., Rosen J.L., Cadenhead K., Cannon T., Ventura J., McFarlane W., Perkins D.O., Pearlson G.D., Woods S.W. Prodromal assessment with the Structured Interview for Prodromal Syndromes and the scale of prodromal symptoms: predictive validity, interrater reliability, and training to reliability. Schizophr. Bull. 2003, 29(4):703-715.
43. Miller T.J., McGlashan T.H., Woods S.W., Stein K., Driesen N., Corcoran C.M., Hoffman R., Davidson L. Symptom assessment in schizophrenic prodromal states. Psychiatr. Quart. 1999, 70(4):273-287.
44. Mittal V.A., Dhruv S., Tessner K.D., Walder D.J., Walker E.F. The relations among putative biorisk markers in schizotypal adolescents: minor physical anomalies, movement abnormalities, and salivary cortisol. Biol. Psychiatry 2007, 61(10):1179-1186.
45. Mittal V.A., Walker E.F. Minor physical anomalies and vulnerability in prodromal youth. Schizophr. Res. 2011, 129(2-3):116-121.
46. Mondelli V., Dazzan P., Gabilondo A., Tournikioti K., Walshe M., Marshall N., Schulze K.K., Murray R.M., McDonald C., Pariante C.M. Pituitary volume in unaffected relatives of patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008, 33(7):1004-1012.
47. Mondelli V., Dazzan P., Hepgul N., Di Forti M., Aas M., D'Albenzio A., Di Nicola M., Fisher H., Handley R., Marques T.R., Morgan C., Navari S., Taylor H., Papadopoulos A., Aitchison K.J., Murray R.M., Pariante C.M. Abnormal cortisol levels during the day and cortisol awakening response in first-episode psychosis: the role of stress and of antipsychotic treatment. Schizophr. Res. 2010, 116(2-3):234-242.
48. Mondelli V., Pariante C.M., Navari S., Aas M., D'Albenzio A., Di Forti M., Handley R., Hepgul N., Marques T.R., Taylor H., Papadopoulos A.S., Aitchison K.J., Murray R.M., Dazzan P. Higher cortisol levels are associated with smaller left hippocampal volume in first-episode psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 2010, 119(1-3):75-78.
49. Mondelli V., Cattaneo A., Belvederi Murri M., Di Forti M., Handley R., Hepgul N., Miorelli A., Navari S., Papadopoulos A.S., Aitchison K.J., Murray R.M., Dazzan P., Pariante C.M. Stress and inflammation reduce brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in first-episode psychosis: a pathway to smaller hippocampal volume. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2011, 72(12):1677-1684.
50. Myin-Germeys I., Marcelis M., Krabbendam L., Delespaul P., van Os J. Subtle fluctuations in psychotic phenomena as functional states of abnormal dopamine reactivity in individuals at risk. Biol. Psychiatry 2005, 58(2):105-110.
51. Myin-Germeys I., van Os J. Stress-reactivity in psychosis: evidence for an affective pathway to psychosis. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2007, 27(4):409-424.
52. Myin-Germeys I., van Os J., Schwartz J.E., Stone A.A., Delespaul P.A. Emotional reactivity to daily life stress in psychosis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2001, 58(12):1137-1144.
53. Narr K.L., van Erp T.G., Cannon T.D., Woods R.P., Thompson P.M., Jang S., Blanton R., Poutanen V.P., Huttunen M., Lonnqvist J., Standerksjold-Nordenstam C.G., Kaprio J., Mazziotta J.C., Toga A.W. A twin study of genetic contributions to hippocampal morphology in schizophrenia. Neurobiol. Dis. 2002, 11(1):83-95.
54. Nuechterlein K.H., Dawson M.E. A heuristic vulnerability/stress model of schizophrenic episodes. Schizophr. Bull. 1984, 10(2):300-312.
55. O'Driscoll G.A., Florencio P.S., Gagnon D., Wolff A.V., Benkelfat C., Mikula L., Lal S., Evans A.C. Amygdala-hippocampal volume and verbal memory in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Res. 2001, 107(2):75-85.
56. Oswald L.M., Wong D.F., Zhou Y., Kumar A., Brasic J., Alexander M., Ye W., Kuwabara H., Hilton J., Wand G.S. Impulsivity and chronic stress are associated with amphetamine-induced striatal dopamine release. Neuroimage 2007, 36(1):153-166.
57. Pantelis C., Velakoulis D., McGorry P.D., Wood S.J., Suckling J., Phillips L.J., Yung A.R., Bullmore E.T., Brewer W., Soulsby B., Desmond P., McGuire P.K. Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: a cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison. Lancet 2003, 361(9354):281-288.
58. Pariante C.M. Pituitary volume in psychosis: the first review of the evidence. J. Psychopharmacol. 2008, 22(2 Suppl.):76-81.
59. Pariante C.M., Dazzan P., Danese A., Morgan K.D., Brudaglio F., Morgan C., Fearon P., Orr K., Hutchinson G., Pantelis C., Velakoulis D., Jones P.B., Leff J., Murray R.M. Increased pituitary volume in antipsychotic-free and antipsychotic-treated patients of the AEsop first-onset psychosis study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005, 30(10):1923-1931.
60. Pariante C.M., Vassilopoulou K., Velakoulis D., Phillips L., Soulsby B., Wood S.J., Brewer W., Smith D.J., Dazzan P., Yung A.R., Zervas I.M., Christodoulou G.N., Murray R., McGorry P.D., Pantelis C. Pituitary volume in psychosis. Br. J. Psychiatry 2004, 185:5-10.
61. Phillips L.J., McGorry P.D., Garner B., Thompson K.N., Pantelis C., Wood S.J., Berger G. Stress, the hippocampus and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: implications for the development of psychotic disorders. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2006, 40(9):725-741.
62. Phillips L.J., Velakoulis D., Pantelis C., Wood S., Yuen H.P., Yung A.R., Desmond P., Brewer W., McGorry P.D. Non-reduction in hippocampal volume is associated with higher risk of psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 2002, 58(2-3):145-158.
63. Pruessner M., Boekestyn L., Bechard-Evans L., Abadi S., Vracotas N., Joober R., Pruessner J.C., Malla A.K. Sex differences in the cortisol response to awakening in recent onset psychosis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008, 33(8):1151-1154.
64. Ryan M.C., Sharifi N., Condren R., Thakore J.H. Evidence of basal pituitary-adrenal overactivity in first episode, drug naive patients with schizophrenia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004, 29(8):1065-1070.
65. Sachar E.J., Kanter S.S., Buie D., Engle R., Mehlman R. Psychoendocrinology of ego disintegration. Am. J. Psychiatry 1970, 126(8):1067-1078.
66. Schulze K., McDonald C., Frangou S., Sham P., Grech A., Toulopoulou T., Walshe M., Sharma T., Sigmundsson T., Taylor M., Murray R.M. Hippocampal volume in familial and nonfamilial schizophrenic probands and their unaffected relatives. Biol. Psychiatry 2003, 53(7):562-570.
67. Seidman L.J., Faraone S.V., Goldstein J.M., Goodman J.M., Kremen W.S., Toomey R., Tourville J., Kennedy D., Makris N., Caviness V.S., Tsuang M.T. Thalamic and amygdala-hippocampal volume reductions in first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia: an MRI-based morphometric analysis. Biol. Psychiatry 1999, 46(7):941-954.
68. Seidman L.J., Faraone S.V., Goldstein J.M., Kremen W.S., Horton N.J., Makris N., Toomey R., Kennedy D., Caviness V.S., Tsuang M.T. Left hippocampal volume as a vulnerability indicator for schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging morphometric study of nonpsychotic first-degree relatives. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2002, 59(9):839-849.
69. Simons C.J., Wichers M., Derom C., Thiery E., Myin-Germeys I., Krabbendam L., van Os J. Subtle gene-environment interactions driving paranoia in daily life. Genes Brain Behav. 2009, 8(1):5-12.
70. Steel R.M., Whalley H.C., Miller P., Best J.J., Johnstone E.C., Lawrie S.M. Structural MRI of the brain in presumed carriers of genes for schizophrenia, their affected and unaffected siblings. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 2002, 72(4):455-458.
71. Steen N.E., Tesli M., Kahler A.K., Methlie P., Hope S., Barrett E.A., Larsson S., Mork E., Lovas K., Rossberg J.I., Agartz I., Melle I., Djurovic S., Lorentzen S., Berg J.P., Andreassen O.A. SRD5A2 is associated with increased cortisol metabolism in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2010, 34(8):1500-1506.
72. Suzuki M., Zhou S.Y., Takahashi T., Hagino H., Kawasaki Y., Niu L., Matsui M., Seto H., Kurachi M. Differential contributions of prefrontal and temporolimbic pathology to mechanisms of psychosis. Brain 2005, 128(Pt 9):2109-2122.
73. Takahashi T., Walterfang M., Wood S.J., Kempton M.J., Jogia J., Lorenzetti V., Soulsby B., Suzuki M., Velakoulis D., Pantelis C., Frangou S. Pituitary volume in patients with bipolar disorder and their first-degree relatives. J. Affect. Disord. 2010, 124(3):256-261.
74. Tamminga C.A., Stan A.D., Wagner A.D. The hippocampal formation in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 2010, 167(10):1178-1193.
75. Taylor S.B., Taylor A.R., Markham J.A., Geurts A.M., Kanaskie B.Z., Koenig J.I. Disruption of the neuregulin 1 gene in the rat alters HPA axis activity and behavioral responses to environmental stimuli. Physiol. Behav. 2011, 104(2):205-214.
76. Tepest R., Wang L., Miller M.I., Falkai P., Csernansky J.G. Hippocampal deformities in the unaffected siblings of schizophrenia subjects. Biol. Psychiatry 2003, 54(11):1234-1240.
77. Thompson J.L., Kelly M., Kimhy D., Harkavy-Friedman J.M., Khan S., Messinger J.W., Schobel S., Goetz R., Malaspina D., Corcoran C. Childhood trauma and prodromal symptoms among individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 2009, 108(1-3):176-181.
78. Thompson K.N., Berger G., Phillips L.J., Komesaroff P., Purcell R., McGorry P.D. HPA axis functioning associated with transition to psychosis: combined DEX/CRH test. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2007, 41(5):446-450.
79. Thompson K.N., Phillips L.J., Komesaroff P., Yuen H.P., Wood S.J., Pantelis C., Velakoulis D., Yung A.R., McGorry P.D. Stress and HPA-axis functioning in young people at Ultra High Risk for psychosis. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2007, 41(7):561-569.
80. van Erp T.G., Saleh P.A., Huttunen M., Lonnqvist J., Kaprio J., Salonen O., Valanne L., Poutanen V.P., Standertskjold-Nordenstam C.G., Cannon T.D. Hippocampal volumes in schizophrenic twins. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2004, 61(4):346-353.
81. Van Erp T.G., Saleh P.A., Rosso I.M., Huttunen M., Lonnqvist J., Pirkola T., Salonen O., Valanne L., Poutanen V.P., Standertskjold-Nordenstam C.G., Cannon T.D. Contributions of genetic risk and fetal hypoxia to hippocampal volume in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, their unaffected siblings, and healthy unrelated volunteers. Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159(9):1514-1520.
82. van Haren N.E., Picchioni M.M., McDonald C., Marshall N., Davis N., Ribchester T., Hulshoff Pol H.E., Sharma T., Sham P., Kahn R.S., Murray R. A controlled study of brain structure in monozygotic twins concordant and discordant for schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 2004, 56(6):454-461.
83. Velakoulis D., Wood S.J., Wong M.T., McGorry P.D., Yung A., Phillips L., Smith D., Brewer W., Proffitt T., Desmond P., Pantelis C. Hippocampal and amygdala volumes according to psychosis stage and diagnosis: a magnetic resonance imaging study of chronic schizophrenia, first-episode psychosis, and ultra-high-risk individuals. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2006, 63(2):139-149.
84. Walker E., Mittal V., Tessner K. Stress and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in the developmental course of schizophrenia. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2008, 4:189-216.
85. Walker E.F., Brennan P.A., Esterberg M., Brasfield J., Pearce B., Compton M.T. Longitudinal changes in cortisol secretion and conversion to psychosis in at-risk youth. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2010, 119(2):401-408.
86. Walker E.F., Diforio D. Schizophrenia: a neural diathesis-stress model. Psychol. Rev. 1997, 104(4):667-685.
87. Webster M.J., Weickert C.S., Herman M.M., Kleinman J.E. BDNF mRNA expression during postnatal development, maturation and aging of the human prefrontal cortex. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 2002, 139(2):139-150.
88. Witthaus H., Kaufmann C., Bohner G., Ozgurdal S., Gudlowski Y., Gallinat J., Ruhrmann S., Brune M., Heinz A., Klingebiel R., Juckel G. Gray matter abnormalities in subjects at ultra-high risk for schizophrenia and first-episode schizophrenic patients compared to healthy controls. Psychiatry Res. 2009, 173(3):163-169.
89. Witthaus H., Mendes U., Brune M., Ozgurdal S., Bohner G., Gudlowski Y., Kalus P., Andreasen N., Heinz A., Klingebiel R., Juckel G. Hippocampal subdivision and amygdalar volumes in patients in an at-risk mental state for schizophrenia. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 2010, 35(1):33-40.
90. Wood S.J., Kennedy D., Phillips L.J., Seal M.L., Yucel M., Nelson B., Yung A.R., Jackson G., McGorry P.D., Velakoulis D., Pantelis C. Hippocampal pathology in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis: a multi-modal magnetic resonance study. Neuroimage 2010, 52(1):62-68.
91. Wood S.J., Yucel M., Velakoulis D., Phillips L.J., Yung A.R., Brewer W., McGorry P.D., Pantelis C. Hippocampal and anterior cingulate morphology in subjects at ultra-high-risk for psychosis: the role of family history of psychotic illness. Schizophr. Res. 2005, 75(2-3):295-301.
92. Yung A.R., Phillips L.J., Yuen H.P., McGorry P.D. Risk factors for psychosis in an ultra high-risk group: psychopathology and clinical features. Schizophr. Res. 2004, 67(2-3):131-142.
93. Yung A.R., Yuen H.P., McGorry P.D., Phillips L.J., Kelly D., Dell'Olio M., Francey S.M., Cosgrave E.M., Killackey E., Stanford C., Godfrey K., Buckby J. Mapping the onset of psychosis: the Comprehensive Assessment of At-Risk Mental States. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2005, 39(11-12):964-971.
94. Zunszain P.A., Anacker C., Cattaneo A., Carvalho L.A., Pariante C.M. Glucocorticoids, cytokines and brain abnormalities in depression. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2011, 35(3):722-729.