Toxicological considerations, toxicity assessment, and risk management of inhaled nanoparticles

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Volumn 17, Issue 6, 2016, Pages

  Bakand, Shahnaz ^a,b   Hayes, Amanda ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

Author keywords

Inhalation; Nanomaterials; Nanoparticles; Physicochemical properties; Risk assessment; Toxicity mechanism

Indexed keywords

NANOPARTICLE; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE;

ADVERSE OUTCOME; BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; GEOMETRY; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; REVIEW; RISK MANAGEMENT; SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; TOXICOLOGY; TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT; ANIMAL; CHEMISTRY; INHALATION; INHALATIONAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION;

ADMINISTRATION, INHALATION; ANIMALS; HUMANS; INHALATION; NANOPARTICLES;

EID: 84974654780     PISSN: 16616596     EISSN: 14220067     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijms17060929     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. ISO. ISO/TR 27687. Nanotechnologies—Terminology and Definitions for Nano-Objects, Nanoparticle, Nanofibre and Nanoplate, 1st ed.; the International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2008.
2. ISO. ISO/TR 80004-2. Nanotechnologies—Vocabulary—Part 2: Nano-Objects, 1st ed.; the International Organisation for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
3. Oberdorster, G.; Kane, A.B.; Klaper, R.D.; Hurt, R.H. Nanotoxicology. In Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology—The Basic Science of Poisons; Klaassen, C.D., Ed.; McGraw Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2013; pp. 1189–1229.
4. Renn, O.; Roco, M. White Paper on Nanotechnology Risk Governance; International Risk Governance Council: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
5. Karn, B.; Masciangioli, T.; Zhang, W.; Colvin, V.; Alivisatos, P. Nanotechnology and the Environment; Applications and Implications; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, USA, 2005.
6. Hougaard, K.S.; Campagnolo, L.; Chavatte-Palmer, P.; Tarrade, A.; Rousseau-Ralliard, D.; Valentino, S.; Park, M.V.; de Jong, W.H.; Wolterink, G.; Piersma, A.H.; et al. A perspective on the developmental toxicity of inhaled nanoparticles.Reprod. Toxicol. 2015, 56, 118–140.
7. Linkov, I.; Satterstrom, F.K.; Corey, L.M. Nanotoxicology and nanomedicine: Making hard decisions. Nanomedicine 2008, 4, 167–171.
8. Beck-Broichsitter, M.; Merkel, O.M.; Kissel, T. Controlled pulmonary drug and gene delivery using polymeric nano-carriers. J. Control. Release 2012, 161, 214–224.
9. Puri, A. Nanoparticles: Crossing barriers and membrane interactions. Mol. Membr. Biol. 2010, 27, 213–214.
10. Drobne, D. Nanotoxicology for safe and sustainable nanotechnology. Arh. Hig. Rada Toksikol. 2007, 58, 471–478.
11. Mazaheri, M.; Eslahi, N.; Ordikhani, F.; Tamjid, E.; Simchi, A. Nanomedicine applications in orthopedic medicine: State of the art. Int. J. Nanomed. 2015, 10, 6039–6053.
12. Khalili Fard, J.; Jafari, S.; Eghbal, M.A. A review of molecular mechanisms involved in toxicity of nanoparticles. Adv. Pharm. Bull. 2015, 5, 447–454.
13. Accomasso, L.; Gallina, C.; Turinetto, V.; Giachino, C. Stem cell tracking with nanoparticles for regenerative medicine purposes: An overview. Stem Cells Int. 2016, 2016.
14. Oberdorster, G.; Oberdorster, E.; Oberdorster, J. Nanotoxicology: An emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 823–839.
15. Warheit, D.B. Nanoparticles health impacts. Mater. Today 2004, 7, 32–35.
16. Dechsakulthorn, F.; Hayes, A.; Bakand, S.; Joeng, L.; Winder, C. In vitro cytotoxicity of selected nanoparticles using human skin fibroblasts. Altern. Anim. Test. Exp. 2008, 14, 397–400.
17. Aufderheide, M.; Halter, B.; Mohle, N.; Hochrainer, D. The CULTEX RFS: A comprehensive technical approach for thein vitro exposure of airway epithelial cells to the particulate matter at the air-liquid interface. BioMed Res. Int. 2013,2013, 734137.
18. Song, Y.; Li, X.; Du, X. Exposure to nanoparticles is related to pleural effusion, pulmonary fibrosis and granuloma.Eur. Respir. J. 2009, 34, 559–567.
19. Rinaldo, M.; Andujar, P.; Lacourt, A.; Martinon, L.; Canal Raffin, M.; Dumortier, P.; Pairon, J.C.; Brochard, P. Perspectives in biological monitoring of inhaled nanosized particles. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2015, 59, 669–680.
20. Bakand, S.; Hayes, A.; Dechsakulthorn, F. Nanoparticles: A review of particle toxicology following inhalation exposure. Inhal. Toxicol. 2012, 24, 125–135.
21. Hayes, A.J.; Bakand, S. Toxicological perspectives of inhaled therapeutics and nanoparticles. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 2014, 10, 933–947.
22. Crosera, M.; Bovenzi, M.; Maina, G.; Adami, G.; Zanette, C.; Florio, C.; Filon Larese, F. Nanoparticle dermal absorption and toxicity: A review of the literature. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2009, 82, 1043–1055.
23. Asgharian, B.; Price, O.; Oberdorster, G. A modeling study of the effect of gravity on airflow distribution and particle deposition in the lung. Inhal. Toxicol. 2006, 18, 473–481.
24. Siegmann, K.; Scherrer, L.; Siegmann, H.C. Physical and chemical properties of airborne nanoscale particles and how to measure the impact on human health. J. Mol. Struct. 1999, 458, 191–201.
25. Rozman, K.K.; Klaassen, C.D. Absorption, distribution and excretion of toxicants. In Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, 6th ed.; Klaassen, C.D., Ed.; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2001; pp. 105–132.
26. Witschi, H.P. Toxic responses of the respiratory system. In Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, 6th ed.; Klaassen, C.D., Ed.; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2001; pp. 515–534.
27. Lambre, C.R.; Auftherheide, M.; Bolton, R.E.; Fubini, B.; Haagsman, H.P.; Hext, P.M.; Jorissen, M.; Landry, Y.; Morin, J.P.; Nemery, B.; et al. In vitro tests for respiratory toxicity, the report and recommendations of ECVAM workshop 18. Altern. Lab. Anim. 1996, 24, 671–681.
28. Bakand, S.; Winder, C.; Khalil, C.; Hayes, A. Toxicity assessment of industrial chemicals and airborne contaminants: Transition from in vivo to in vitro test methods: A review. Inhal. Toxicol. 2005, 17, 775–787.
29. Blank, F.; Gehr, P.; Rutishauser, R.R. In Vitro Human Lung Cell Culture Models to Study the Toxic Potential of Nanoparticles; John Wily & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 2009.
30. Lundborg, M.; Johard, U.; Lastbom, L.; Gerde, P.; Camner, P. Human alveolar macrophage phagocytic function is impaired by aggregates of ultrafine carbon particles. Environ. Res. 2001, 86, 244–253.
31. Bergeron, S.; Archambault, D.P. Canadian Stewardship Practices for Environmental Nanotechnology; Science-Metrix: Montreal, QC, Canada, 2005.
32. Brown, D.M.; Kinloch, J.A.; Bangert, U.; Windle, A.H.; Walter, D.M.; Walker, G.S.; Scotchford, C.A.; Donaldson, K.; Stone, V. An in vitro study of the potential of carbon nanotubes and nanofibres to induce inflammatory mediators and frustrated phagocytosis. Carbon 2007, 45, 1743–1756.
33. Mublfeld, C.; Gebr, P.; Rutishauser, B.R. Translocation and cellular entering mechanisms of nanoparticles in the respiratory tract. Swiss Med. Wkly. 2008, 138, 387–391.
34. Kan, H.; London, S.J.; Chen, G.; Zhang, Y.; Song, G.; Zhao, N.; Jiang, L.; Chen, B. Season, sex, age, and education as modifiers of the effects of outdoor air pollution on daily mortality in shanghai, china: The public health and air pollution in Asia (PAPA) study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116, 1183–1188.
35. Bachler, G.; Losert, S.; Umehara, Y.; von Goetz, N.; Rodriguez-Lorenzo, L.; Petri-Fink, A.; Rothen-Rutishauser, B.; Hungerbuehler, K. Translocation of gold nanoparticles across the lung epithelial tissue barrier: Combining in vitroand in silico methods to substitute in vivo experiments. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2015, 12, 18.
36. Dockery, D.W.; Pope, C.A.; Xu, X.; Spengler, J.D.; Ware, J.H.; Fay, M.E.; Ferris, B.G., Jr.; Speizer, F.E. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. Cities. N. Engl. J. Med. 1993, 329, 1753–1759.
37. Chauhan, A.J.; Johnston, S.L. Air pollution and infection in respiratory illness. Br. Med. Bull. 2003, 68, 95–112.
38. Borm, P.J.; Robbins, D.; Haubold, S.; Kuhlbusch, T.; Fissan, H.; Donaldson, K.; Schins, R.; Stone, V.; Kreyling, W.; Lademann, J.; et al. The potential risks of nanomaterials: A review carried out for ECETOC. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2006, 3, 11.
39. Ruckerl, R.; Schneider, A.; Breitner, S.; Cyrys, J.; Peters, A. Health effects of particulate air pollution: A review of epidemiological evidence. Inhal. Toxicol. 2011, 23, 555–592.
40. Stone, V.; Johnston, H.; Clift, M.J. Air pollution, ultrafine and nanoparticle toxicology: Cellular and molecular interactions. IEEE Trans. Nanobiosci. 2007, 6, 331–340.
41. Lawson, G.; Wang, H. Public health impact of diesel exhast: Toxicity of nano-sized diesel exhaust particles—Part 1. Environ. Health 2006, 6, 17–21.
42. Donaldson, K.; Tran, L.; Jimenez, L.A.; Duffin, R.; Newby, D.E.; Mills, N.; MacNee, W.; Stone, V. Combustion-derived nanoparticles: A review of their toxicology following inhalation exposure. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2005, 2, 10.
43. Nel, A.; Xia, T.; Madler, L.; Li, N. Toxic potential of materials at the nanolevel. Science 2006, 311, 622–627.
44. Karlson, H.L.; Cronholm, P.; Gustafsson, J.; Moller, L. Copper oxide nanoparticles are highly toxic: A comparison between metal oxide nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2008, 21, 1726–1732.
45. David, A.; Wagner, G.R. Respiratory system. In Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 4th ed.; Stellman, J.M., Ed.; International Labour Office: Geneva, Switzerland, 1998.
46. Winder, C. Toxicology of gases, vapours and particulates. In Occupational Toxicology, 2nd ed.; Winder, C., Stacey, N.H., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2004.
47. Peters, K.; Unger, R.E.; Kirkpatrick, C.J.; Gatti, A.M.; Monari, E. Effects of nano-scaled particles on endothelial cell function in vitro: Studies on viability, proliferation and inflammation. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 2004, 15, 321–325.
48. Hussain, S.M.; Hess, K.L.; Gearhart, J.M.; Geiss, K.T.; Schlager, J.J. In vitro toxicity of nanoparticles in BRL 3A rat liver cells. Toxicol. Vitr. 2005, 19, 975–983.
49. Gojova, A.; Guo, B.; Kota, R.S.; Rutledge, J.C.; Kennedy, I.M.; Barakat, A.I. Induction of inflammation in vascular endothelial cells by metal oxide nanoparticles: Effect of particle composition. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 403–409.
50. Geiser, M.; Rothen-Rutishauser, B.; Kapp, N.; Schurch, S.; Kreyling, W.; Schulz, H.; Semmler, M.; Im Hof, V.; Heyder, J.; Gehr, P. Ultrafine particles cross cellular membranes by nonphagocytic mechanisms in lungs and in cultured cells.Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 1555–1560.
51. Chithrani, D.B. Intracellular uptake, transport, and processing of gold nanostructures. Mol. Membr. Biol. 2010, 27, 299–311.
52. Donaldson, K.; Stone, V.; Tran, C.L.; Kreyling, W.; Borm, P.J. Nanotoxicology. Occup. Environ. Med. 2004, 61, 727–728.
53. Shi, X.; von dem Bussche, A.; Hurt, R.H.; Kane, A.B.; Gao, H. Cell entry of one-dimensional nanomaterials occurs by tip recognition and rotation. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2011, 6, 714–719.
54. Wang, X.; Xia, T.; Ntim, S.A.; Ji, Z.; Lin, S.; Meng, H.; Chung, C.H.; George, S.; Zhang, H.; Wang, M.; et al. Dispersal state of multiwalled carbon nanotubes elicits profibrogenic cellular responses that correlate with fibrogenesis biomarkers and fibrosis in the murine lung. ACS Nano 2011, 5, 9772–9787.
55. Fenoglio, I.; Fubini, B.; Ghibaudi, E.M.; Turci, F. Multiple aspects of the interaction of biomacromolecules with inorganic surfaces. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2011, 63, 1186–1209.
56. Donaldson, K.; Stone, V.; Gilmour, P.S.; Brown, D.M.; MacNee, W. Ultrafine particles: Mechanisms of lung injury. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 2000, 358, 2741–2749.
57. Renwick, L.C.; Brown, D.; Clouter, A.; Donaldson, K. Increased inflammation and altered macrophage chemotactic responses caused by two ultrafine particle types. Occup. Environ. Med. 2004, 61, 442–447.
58. Kim, I.Y.; Joachim, E.; Choi, H.; Kim, K. Toxicity of silica nanoparticles depends on size, dose, and cell type. Nanomedicine 2015, 11, 1407–1416.
59. Tolstoshev, A. Nanotechnology, Assessing the Environmental Risks for Australia; Earth Policy Centre, University of Melbourne: Melbourne, Australian, 2006.
60. Donaldson, K.; Brown, D.; Clouter, A.; Duffin, R.; MacNee, W.; Renwick, L.; Tran, L.; Stone, V. The pulmonary toxicology of ultrafine particles. J. Aerosol Med. 2002, 15, 213–220.
61. Dubey, P.; Matai, I.; Kumar, S.U.; Sachdev, A.; Bhushan, B.; Gopinath, P. Perturbation of cellular mechanistic system by silver nanoparticle toxicity: Cytotoxic, genotoxic and epigenetic potentials. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2015, 221, 4–21.
62. Lin, W.; Huang, Y.W.; Zhou, X.D.; Ma, Y. In vitro toxicity of silica nanoparticles in human lung cancer cells. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2006, 217, 252–259.
63. Thit, A.; Selck, H.; Bjerregaard, H.F. Toxic mechanisms of copper oxide nanoparticles in epithelial kidney cells. Toxicol. Vitr. 2015, 29, 1053–1059.
64. Sanganeria, P.; Sachar, S.; Chandra, S.; Bahadur, D.; Ray, P.; Khanna, A. Cellular internalization and detailed toxicity analysis of protein-immobilized iron oxide nanoparticles. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B 2015, 103, 125–134.
65. McShan, D.; Ray, P.C.; Yu, H. Molecular toxicity mechanism of nanosilver. J. Food Drug Anal. 2014, 22, 116–127.
66. Boland, S.; Hussain, S.; Baeza-Squiban, A. Carbon black and titanium dioxide nanoparticles induce distinct molecular mechanisms of toxicity. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol. 2014, 6, 641–652.
67. Mustajbegovic, J.; Zuskin, E.; Schachter, E.N.; Kern, J.; Vitale, K.; Ebling, Z.; Vrcic-Keglevic, M. Respiratory findings in chemical workers exposed to low concentrations of organic and inorganic air pollutants. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2000, 38, 431–440.
68. Khandoga, A.; Stoeger, T.; Khandoga, A.G.; Bihari, P.; Karg, E.; Ettehadieh, D.; Lakatos, S.; Fent, J.; Schulz, H.; Krombach, F. Platelet adhesion and fibrinogen deposition in murine microvessels upon inhalation of nanosized carbon particles. J. Thromb. Haemost. 2010, 8, 1632–1640.
69. Brunner, T.J.; Wick, P.; Manser, P.; Spohn, P.; Grass, R.N.; Limbach, L.K.; Bruinink, A.; Stark, W.J. In vitro cytotoxicity of oxides nanoparticles: Comparison to asbestos, silical, and the effects of particle solubility. Environ. Sci. Technol.2006, 40, 4374–4381.
70. Seaton, A. Nanotechnology and the occupational physician. Occup. Med. 2006, 56, 312–316.
71. Poland, C.A.; Duffin, R.; Kinloch, I.; Maynard, A.; Wallace, W.A.; Seaton, A.; Stone, V.; Brown, S.; Macnee, W.; Donaldson, K. Carbon nanotubes introduced into the abdominal cavity of mice show asbestos-like pathogenicity in a pilot study. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2008, 3, 423–428.
72. Kettler, K.; Veltman, K.; van de Meent, D.; van Wezel, A.; Hendriks, A.J. Cellular uptake of nanoparticles as determined by particle properties, experimental conditions, and cell type. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2014, 33, 481–492.
73. Choi, J.Y.; Ramachandran, G.; Kandlikar, M. The impact of toxicity testing costs on nanomaterial regulation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 3030–3034.
74. Hayes, A.; Bakand, S.; Winder, C. Novel in vitro exposure techniques for toxicity testing and biomonitoring of airborne contaminants. In Drug Testing in Vitro-Breakthroughs and Trends in Cell Culture Technology; Marx, U., Sandig, V., Eds.; Wiley-VCH: Berlin, Germany, 2007; pp. 103–124.
75. Stone, V.; Johnston, H.; Schins, R.P. Development of in vitro systems for nanotoxicology: Methodological considerations. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2009, 39, 613–626.
76. ICCVAM. Report of the International Workshop on in Vitro Methods for Assessing Acute Systemic Toxicity; Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods: Research Triangle Park, NC, USA, 2001.
77. Bakand, S.; Hayes, A. Troubleshooting methods for toxicity testing of airborne chemicals in vitro. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Methods 2010, 61, 76–85.
78. Sayes, C.M.; Reed, K.L.; Warheit, D.B. Assessing toxicity of fine and nanoparticles: Comparing in vitro measurements to in vivo pulmonary toxicity profiles. Toxicol. Sci. 2007, 97, 163–180.
79. Allen, C.B. In vitro models for lung toxicology. In Toxicology of the Lung, 4th ed.; Gardner, D.E., Ed.; Taylor & Francis: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2006; pp. 107–150.
80. Mondrinos, M.J.; Koutzaki, S.; Jiwanmall, E.; Li, M.; Dechadarevian, J.P.; Lelkes, P.I.; Finck, C.M. Engineering three-dimensional pulmonary tissue constructs. Tissue Eng. 2006, 12, 717–728.
81. Lazarovici, P.; Li, M.; Perets, A.; Mondrinos, M.J.; Lecht, S.; Koharski, C.D.; Bidez, P.R., III; Fink, C.M.; Lelkes, P.I. Intelligent biomatrices and engineered tissue constructs: In-vitro models for drug discovery and toxicity testing. In Drug Testing in Vitro-Breakthroughs and Trends in Cell Culture Technology; Marx, U., Sandig, V., Eds.; Wiley-VCH.: Berlin, Germany, 2007; pp. 3–51.
82. Mondrinos, M.J.; Koutzaki, S.; Lelkes, P.I.; Finck, C.M. A tissue-engineered model of fetal distal lung tissue. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 2007, 293, L639–L650.
83. Aufderheide, M. Direct exposure methods for testing native atmospheres. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 2005, 57, 213–226.
84. Bakand, S.; Winder, C.; Khalil, C.; Hayes, A. A novel in vitro exposure technique for toxicity testing of selected volatile organic compounds. J. Environ. Monit. 2006, 8, 100–105.
85. Bakand, S.; Winder, C.; Khalil, C.; Hayes, A. An experimental in vitro model for dynamic direct exposure of human cells to airborne contaminants. Toxicol. Lett. 2006, 165, 1–10.
86. Lestari, F.; Green, A.R.; Chattopadhyay, G.; Hayes, A.J. An alternative method for fire smoke toxicity assessment using human lung cells. Fire Saf. J. 2006, 41, 605–615.
87. Lestari, F.; Markovic, B.; Green, A.R.; Chattopadhyay, G.; Hayes, A.J. Comparative assessment of three in vitroexposure methods for combustion toxicity. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2006, 26, 99–114.
88. Bakand, S.; Hayes, A.; Winder, C. An integrated in vitro approach for toxicity testing of airborne contaminants. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 2007, 70, 1604–1612.
89. Bakand, S.; Winder, C.; Hayes, A. Comparative in vitro cytotoxicity assessment of selected gaseous compounds in human alveolar epithelial cells. Toxicol. Vitr. 2007, 21, 1341–1347.
90. Potera, C. More human, more humane: A new approach for testing airborne pollutants. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007,115, A148–A151.
91. Tippe, A.; Heinzmann, U.; Roth, C. Deposition of fine and ultrafine aerosol particles during exposure at the air/cell interface. Aerosol Sci. 2002, 33, 207–218.
92. Bitterle, E.; Karg, E.; Schroeppel, A.; Kreyling, W.G.; Tippe, A.; Ferron, G.A.; Schmid, O.; Heyder, J.; Maier, K.L.; Hofer, T. Dose-controlled exposure of A549 epithelial cells at the air-liquid interface to airborne ultrafine carbonaceous particles. Chemosphere 2006, 65, 1784–1790.
93. Paur, H.R.; Mulhopt, S.; Weiss, C.; Diabate, S. In vitro exposure systems and bioassays for the assessment of toxicity of nanoparticles to the human lung. J. Consum. Prot. Food Saf. 2008, 3, 319–329.
94. Mulhopt, S.; Diabate, S.; Krebs, T.; Weiss, C.; Paur, H.R. Lung toxicity determination by in vitro exposure at the air liquid interface with an integrated online dose measurement. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2009, 170, 1.
95. Aufderheide, M.; Mohr, U. A modified CULTEX® system for the direct exposure of bacteria to inhalable substances.Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 2004, 55, 451–454.
96. ISO. ISO/TR 12885. Nanotechnologies—Health and Safety Practices in Occupational Settings Relevant to Nanotechnologies, 1st ed.; the International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2008.
97. ISO. ISO/TR 13121. Nanotechnologies—Nanomaterial Risk Evaluation, 1st ed.; the International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011.
98. Australia, S.W. How to Manage Work, Health and Safety Risks: Code of Practice; Safe Work SA: Canberra, Australia, 2011.
99. Monteiro-Riveiere, N.A.; Inman, A.O. Challenges for assessing carbon nanomaterial toxicity to the skin. Carbon 2006,44, 1070–1078.
100. Casey, A.; Herzog, E.; Davoren, M.; Lyng, F.M.; Byrne, H.J.; Chambers, G. Spectroscopic analysis confirms the interactions between single walled carbon nanotubes and various dyes commonly used to assess cytotoxicty. Carbon 2007, 45, 1425–1432.
101. Casey, A.; Herzog, E.; Lyng, F.M.; Byrne, H.J.; Chambers, G.; Davoren, M. Single walled carbon nanotubes induce indirect cytotoxicity by medium depletion in A549 lung cells. Toxicol. Lett. 2008, 179, 78–84.
102. Guo, L.; von Dem Bussche, A.; Buechner, M.; Yan, A.; Kane, A.B.; Hurt, R.H. Adsorption of essential micronutrients by carbon nanotubes and the implications for nanotoxicity testing. Small 2008, 4, 721–727.
103. Englert, B.C. Nanomaterials and the environment: Uses, methods and measurement. J. Environ. Monit. 2007, 9, 1154–1161.
104. Cohen, B.S.; McCammon, J. Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants, 9th ed.; ACGIH: Cincinnati, OH, USA, 2001.
105. Sayes, C.M.; Gobin, A.M.; Ausman, K.D.; Mendez, J.; West, J.L.; Colvin, V.L. Nano-C60 cytotoxicity is due to lipid peroxidation. Biomaterials 2005, 26, 7587–7595.
106. 3+ nanoparticles with macrophage and fibroblast cells. Toxicol. Vitr.2016, 32, 16–25.
107. Schilling, K.; Bradford, B.; Castelli, D.; Dufour, E.; Nash, J.F.; Pape, W.; Schulte, S.; Tooley, I.; van den Bosch, J.; Schellauf, F. Human safety review of “nano” titanium dioxide and zinc oxide. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 2010, 9, 495–509.
108. Sayes, C.M.; Liang, F.; Hudson, J.L.; Mendez, J.; Guo, W.; Beach, J.M.; Moore, V.C.; Doyle, C.D.; West, J.L.; Billups, W.E.; et al. Functionalization density dependence of single-walled carbon nanotubes cytotoxicity in vitro. Toxicol. Lett.2006, 161, 135–142.
109. Sasidharan, A.; Panchakarla, L.S.; Chandran, P.; Menon, D.; Nair, S.; Rao, C.N.; Koyakutty, M. Differential nano-bio interactions and toxicity effects of pristine versus functionalized graphene. Nanoscale 2011, 3, 2461–2464.
110. Shenava, A.; Sharma, M.; Shetty, V.; Shenoy, S. Silver nanoparticles: A boon in clinical medicine. J. Oral Res. Rev. 2015,7, 35–38.
111. Foldbjerg, R.; Dang, D.A.; Autrup, H. Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of silver nanoparticles in the human lung cancer cell line, A549. Arch. Toxicol. 2011, 85, 743–750.
112. Alarcon, E.I.; Vulesevic, B.; Argawal, A.; Ross, A.; Bejjani, P.; Podrebarac, J.; Ravichandran, R.; Phopase, J.; Suuronen, E.J.; Griffith, M. Coloured cornea replacements with anti-infective properties: Expanding the safe use of silver nanoparticles in regenerative medicine. Nanoscale 2016, 8, 6484–6489.
113. Zhang, Y.N.; Poon, W.; Tavares, A.J.; McGilvray, I.D.; Chan, W.C. Nanoparticle-liver interactions: Cellular uptake and hepatobiliary elimination. J. Control. Release 2016.
114. Zalk, D.M.; Paik, S.Y.; Paul Swuste, P. Evaluating the control banding nanotool: A qualitative risk assessment method for controlling nanoparticle exposures. J. Nanopart. Res. 2009, 11, 1685–1704.
115. Ramachandran, G.; Ostraat, M.; Evans, D.E.; Methner, M.M.; O’Shaughnessy, P.; D’Arcy, J.; Geraci, C.L.; Stevenson, E.; Maynard, A.; Rickabaugh, K. A strategy for assessing workplace exposures to nanomaterials. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2011, 8, 673–685.
116. ISO. ISO/TS 12901-1. Nanotechnologies—Occupational Risk Management Applied to Engineered Nanomaterial—Part 1: Principles and Approaches; The International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2012.
117. ISO. ISO/TS 12901–2. Nanotechnologies—Occupational Risk Management Applied to Engineered Nanomaterial—Part 2: Use of the Control Banding Approach; The International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2014.
118. Schulte, P.A.; Salamanca-Buentello, F. Ethical and scientific issues of nanotechnology in the workplace. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 5–12.