Infection with and carriage of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children

Frontiers in Microbiology

Volumn 7, Issue MAR, 2016, Pages

  Meyer Sauteur, Patrick M ^a,b   Unger, Wendy W J ^a   Nadal, David ^b   Berger, Christoph ^b   Vink, Cornelis ^c   Van Rossum, Annemarie M C ^a  

^a SOPHIA CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Switzerland)

^c ERASMUS UNIVERSITY ROTTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Carriage; Children; Diagnosis; Mycoplasma pneumoniae; Pneumonia

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ASTHMA; BRONCHITIS; COMPLEMENT FIXATION TEST; EXTRAPULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS; GUILLAIN BARRE SYNDROME; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; MUCOSA INFLAMMATION; MYCOPLASMA PNEUMONIA; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION;

EID: 84964339396     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1664302X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00329     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Adefurin, A., Sammons, H., Jacqz-Aigrain, E., and Choonara, I. (2011). Ciprofloxacin safety in paediatrics: a systematic review. Arch. Dis. Child. 96, 874-880. doi: 10.1136/adc.2010.208843
2. Al-Zaidy, S. A., MacGregor, D., Mahant, S., Richardson, S. E., and Bitnun, A. (2015). Neurological complications of PCR-proven M. pneumoniae infections in children: prodromal illness duration may reflect pathogenetic mechanism. Clin. Infect. Dis. 61, 1092-1098. doi: 10.1093/cid/civ473
3. Ang, C. W., Tio-Gillen, A. P., Groen, J., Herbrink, P., Jacobs, B. C., Van Koningsveld, R., et al. (2002). Cross-reactive anti-galactocerebroside antibodies and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in Guillain-Barré syndrome. J. Neuroimmunol. 130, 179-183. doi: 10.1016/S0165-5728(02)00209-6
4. Atkinson, T. P. (2013). Is asthma an infectious disease? New evidence. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep. 13, 702-709. doi: 10.1007/s11882-013-0390-8
5. Averbuch, D., Hidalgo-Grass, C., Moses, A. E., Engelhard, D., and Nir-Paz, R. (2011). Macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Israel, 2010. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 17, 1079-1082. doi: 10.3201/eid/1706.101558
6. Baer, G., Engelcke, G., Abele-Horn, M., Schaad, U. B., and Heininger, U. (2003). Role of Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae as causative agents of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalised children and adolescents. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 22, 742-745. doi: 10.1007/s10096-003-1037-9
7. Bebear, C., Pereyre, S., and Peuchant, O. (2011). Mycoplasma pneumoniae: susceptibility and resistance to antibiotics. Future Microbiol. 6, 423-431. doi: 10.2217/fmb.11.18
8. Bebear, C., Raherison, C., Nacka, F., de Barbeyrac, B., Pereyre, S., Renaudin, H., et al. (2014). Comparison of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in asthmatic children versus asthmatic adults. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 33, e71-e75. doi: 10.1097/INF.0000000000000063
9. Becker, A., Kannan, T. R., Taylor, A. B., Pakhomova, O. N., Zhang, Y., Somarajan, S. R., et al. (2015). Structure of CARDS toxin, a unique ADP-ribosylating and vacuolating cytotoxin from Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112, 5165-5170. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1420308112
10. Beersma, M. F., Dirven, K., van Dam, A. P., Templeton, K. E., Claas, E. C., and Goossens, H. (2005). Evaluation of 12 commercial tests and the complement fixation test for Mycoplasma pneumoniae-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM antibodies, with PCR used as the "gold standard". J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 2277-2285. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.5.2277-2285.2005
11. Bitnun, A., Ford-Jones, E. L., Petric, M., MacGregor, D., Heurter, H., Nelson, S., et al. (2001). Acute childhood encephalitis and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32, 1674-1684. doi: 10.1086/320748
12. Bradley, J. S., Byington, C. L., Shah, S. S., Alverson, B., Carter, E. R., Harrison, C., et al. (2011). The management of community-acquired pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 53, e25-e76. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir531
13. Brown, R. J., Macfarlane-Smith, L., Phillips, S., and Chalker, V. J. (2015). Detection of macrolide resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in England, September 2014 to September 2015. Euro Surveill. 20, 30078. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2015.20.48.30078
14. Cardinale, F., Chironna, M., Chinellato, I., Principi, N., and Esposito, S. (2013). Clinical relevance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae macrolide resistance in children. J. Clin. Microbiol. 51, 723-724. doi: 10.1128/JCM.02840-12
15. Cardinale, F., Chironna, M., Dumke, R., Binetti, A., Daleno, C., Sallustio, A., et al. (2011). Macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in paediatric pneumonia. Eur. Respir. J. 37, 1522-1524. doi: 10.1183/09031936.00172510
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] (2013). Mycoplasma pneumoniae outbreak at a university-Georgia, 2012. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 62, 603-606.
17. Chalker, V. J., Pereyre, S., Dumke, R., Winchell, J., Khosla, P., Sun, H., et al. (2015). International Mycoplasma pneumoniae typing study: interpretation of M. pneumoniae multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis. New Microbes New Infect. 7, 37-40. doi: 10.1016/j.nmni.2015.05.005
18. Chanock, R. M. (1963). Mycoplasma pneumoniae: proposed nomenclature for atypical pneumonia organism (Eaton agent). Science 140, 662. doi: 10.1126/science.140.3567.662
19. Chanock, R. M., Cook, M. K., Fox, H. H., Parrott, R. H., and Huebner, R. J. (1960). Serologic evidence of infection with Eaton agent in lower respiratory illness in childhood. N. Engl. J. Med. 262, 648-654. doi: 10.1056/NEJM196003312621303
20. Chanock, R. M., Hayflick, L., and Barile, M. F. (1962). Growth on artificial medium of an agent associated with atypical pneumonia and its identification as a PPLO. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 48, 41-49. doi: 10.1073/pnas.48.1.41
21. Chanock, R. M., Mufson, M. A., Bloom, H. H., James, W. D., Fox, H. H., and Kingston, J. R. (1961a). Eaton agent pneumonia. JAMA 175, 213-220. doi: 10.1001/jama.1961.03040030037007
22. Chanock, R. M., Rifkind, D., Kravetz, H. M., Kinght, V., and Johnson, K. M. (1961b). Respiratory disease in volunteers infected with Eaton agent: a preliminary report. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 47, 887-890. doi: 10.1073/pnas.47.6.887
23. Chironna, M., Sallustio, A., Esposito, S., Perulli, M., Chinellato, I., Di Bari, C., et al. (2011). Emergence of macrolide-resistant strains during an outbreak of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in children. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 66, 734-737. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkr003
24. Christie, L. J., Honarmand, S., Talkington, D. F., Gavali, S. S., Preas, C., Pan, C. Y., et al. (2007a). Pediatric encephalitis: what is the role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae? Pediatrics 120, 305-313. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-0240
25. Christie, L. J., Honarmand, S., Yagi, S., Ruiz, S., and Glaser, C. A. (2007b). Anti-galactocerebroside testing in Mycoplasma pneumoniae-associated encephalitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 189, 129-131. doi: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.06.017
26. Daxboeck, F., Blacky, A., Seidl, R., Krause, R., and Assadian, O. (2004). Diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae childhood encephalitis: systematic review of 58 cases. J. Child Neurol. 19, 865-871.
27. Domenech, C., Leveque, N., Lina, B., Najioullah, F., and Floret, D. (2009). Role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in pediatric encephalitis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 28, 91-94. doi: 10.1007/s10096-008-0591-6
28. Dorigo-Zetsma, J. W., Wilbrink, B., van der Nat, H., Bartelds, A. I., Heijnen, M. L., and Dankert, J. (2001). Results of molecular detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae among patients with acute respiratory infection and in their household contacts reveals children as human reservoirs. J. Infect. Dis. 183, 675-678. doi: 10.1086/318529
29. Dumke, R., Strubel, A., Cyncynatus, C., Nuyttens, H., Herrmann, R., Luck, C., et al. (2012). Optimized serodiagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 73, 200-203. doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2012.02.014
30. Dumke, R., von Baum, H., Luck, P. C., and Jacobs, E. (2010). Occurrence of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae strains in Germany. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 16, 613-616. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02968.x
31. Eaton, M. D., Meiklejohn, G., and van Herick, W. (1944). Studies on the etiology of primary atypical pneumonia: a filterable agent transmissible to cotton rats, hamsters, and chick embryos. J. Exp. Med. 79, 649-668. doi: 10.1084/jem.79.6.649
32. Eshaghi, A., Memari, N., Tang, P., Olsha, R., Farrell, D. J., Low, D. E., et al. (2013). Macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in humans, Ontario, Canada, 2010-2011. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 19, 1525-1527.
33. Esposito, S., Blasi, F., Arosio, C., Fioravanti, L., Fagetti, L., Droghetti, R., et al. (2000). Importance of acute Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae infections in children with wheezing. Eur. Respir. J. 16, 1142-1146. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.16f21.x
34. Esposito, S., Bosis, S., Faelli, N., Begliatti, E., Droghetti, R., Tremolati, E., et al. (2005). Role of atypical bacteria and azithromycin therapy for children with recurrent respiratory tract infections. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 24, 438-444. doi: 10.1097/01.inf.0000160949.99560.8d
35. Esposito, S., Cavagna, R., Bosis, S., Droghetti, R., Faelli, N., and Principi, N. (2002). Emerging role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children with acute pharyngitis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 21, 607-610. doi: 10.1007/s10096-002-0780-7
36. Ferguson, G. D., Gadsby, N. J., Henderson, S. S., Hardie, A., Kalima, P., Morris, A. C., et al. (2013). Clinical outcomes and macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Scotland, UK. J. Med. Microbiol. 62, 1876-1882. doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.066191-0
37. Fischer, J. E., Steiner, F., Zucol, F., Berger, C., Martignon, L., Bossart, W., et al. (2002). Use of simple heuristics to target macrolide prescription in children with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 156, 1005-1008. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.156.10.1005
38. Foy, H. M. (1993). Infections caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae and possible carrier state in different populations of patients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 17(Suppl. 1), S37-S46. doi: 10.1093/clinids/17.Supplement_1.S37
39. Foy, H. M., Kenny, G. E., Cooney, M. K., and Allan, I. D. (1979). Long-term epidemiology of infections with Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J. Infect. Dis. 139, 681-687. doi: 10.1093/infdis/139.6.681
40. Fuchs, E. (1876). Herpes oris conjunctivae. Klin. Monatsbl. Augenheilkd. 14, 333-351.
41. Gadsby, N. J., Reynolds, A. J., McMenamin, J., Gunson, R. N., McDonagh, S., Molyneaux, P. J., et al. (2012). Increased reports of Mycoplasma pneumoniae from laboratories in Scotland in 2010 and 2011-impact of the epidemic in infants. Euro Surveill. 17, 20110.
42. Gardiner, S. J., Gavranich, J. B., and Chang, A. B. (2015). Antibiotics for community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections secondary to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 1, CD004875. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004875.pub5
43. Granerod, J., Cunningham, R., Zuckerman, M., Mutton, K., Davies, N. W., Walsh, A. L., et al. (2010). Causality in acute encephalitis: defining aetiologies. Epidemiol. Infect. 138, 783-800. doi: 10.1017/S0950268810000725
44. Hardy, R. D., Coalson, J. J., Peters, J., Chaparro, A., Techasaensiri, C., Cantwell, A. M., et al. (2009). Analysis of pulmonary inflammation and function in the mouse and baboon after exposure to Mycoplasma pneumoniae CARDS toxin. PLoS ONE 4:e7562. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007562
45. Harris, M., Clark, J., Coote, N., Fletcher, P., Harnden, A., McKean, M., et al. (2011). British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in children: update 2011. Thorax 66(Suppl. 2), ii1-ii23. doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2011-200598
46. Hausner, M., Schamberger, A., Naumann, W., Jacobs, E., and Dumke, R. (2013). Development of protective anti-Mycoplasma pneumoniae antibodies after immunization of guinea pigs with the combination of a P1-P30 chimeric recombinant protein and chitosan. Microb. Pathog. 64, 23-32. doi: 10.1016/j.micpath.2013.07.004
47. Himmelreich, R., Hilbert, H., Plagens, H., Pirkl, E., Li, B. C., and Herrmann, R. (1996). Complete sequence analysis of the genome of the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Nucleic Acids Res. 24, 4420-4449. doi: 10.1093/nar/24.22.4420
48. Hong, K. B., Choi, E. H., Lee, H. J., Lee, S. Y., Cho, E. Y., Choi, J. H., et al. (2013). Macrolide resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae, South Korea, 2000-2011. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 19, 1281-1284. doi: 10.3201/eid1908.121455
49. Jacobs, E. (2012). Mycoplasma pneumoniae: now in the focus of clinicians and epidemiologists. Euro Surveill. 17, 1-3.
50. Jacobs, E., Ehrhardt, I., and Dumke, R. (2015). New insights in the outbreak pattern of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 305, 705-708. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2015.08.021
51. Jain, S., Williams, D. J., Arnold, S. R., Ampofo, K., Bramley, A. M., Reed, C., et al. (2015). Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among U.S. children. N. Engl. J. Med. 372, 835-845. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1405870
52. John, S. D., Ramanathan, J., and Swischuk, L. E. (2001). Spectrum of clinical and radiographic findings in pediatric mycoplasma pneumonia. Radiographics 21, 121-131. doi: 10.1148/radiographics.21.1.g01ja10121
53. Juven, T., Mertsola, J., Waris, M., Leinonen, M., Meurman, O., Roivainen, M., et al. (2000). Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in 254 hospitalized children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 19, 293-298. doi: 10.1097/00006454-200004000-00006
54. Kannan, T. R., and Baseman, J. B. (2006). ADP-ribosylating and vacuolating cytotoxin of Mycoplasma pneumoniae represents unique virulence determinant among bacterial pathogens. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 6724-6729. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0510644103
55. Kannan, T. R., Hardy, R. D., Coalson, J. J., Cavuoti, D. C., Siegel, J. D., Cagle, M., et al. (2012). Fatal outcomes in family transmission of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Clin. Infect. Dis. 54, 225-231. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir769
56. Kusunoki, S., Shiina, M., and Kanazawa, I. (2001). Anti-Gal-C antibodies in GBS subsequent to mycoplasma infection: evidence of molecular mimicry. Neurology 57, 736-738. doi: 10.1212/WNL.57.4.736
57. Linchevski, I., Klement, E., and Nir-Paz, R. (2009). Mycoplasma pneumoniae vaccine protective efficacy and adverse reactions-Systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccine 27, 2437-2446. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.01.135
58. Loens, K., Goossens, H., and Ieven, M. (2010). Acute respiratory infection due to Mycoplasma pneumoniae: current status of diagnostic methods. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 29, 1055-1069. doi: 10.1007/s10096-010-0975-2
59. Matsuda, K., Narita, M., Sera, N., Maeda, E., Yoshitomi, H., Ohya, H., et al. (2013). Gene and cytokine profile analysis of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Fukuoka, Japan. BMC Infect. Dis. 13:591. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-591
60. McCoy, W. C. (1946). Primary atypical pneumonia. South Med. J. 39, 696-706. doi: 10.1097/00007611-194609000-00005
61. McCracken, G. H. Jr. (1986). Current status of antibiotic treatment for Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 5, 167-171. doi: 10.1097/00006454-198601000-00054
62. Medina, J. L., Coalson, J. J., Brooks, E. G., Winter, V. T., Chaparro, A., Principe, M. F., et al. (2012). Mycoplasma pneumoniae CARDS toxin induces pulmonary eosinophilic and lymphocytic inflammation. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 46, 815-822. doi: 10.1165/rcmb.2011-0135OC
63. Menge, T., Lalive, P. H., von Budingen, H. C., Cree, B., Hauser, S. L., and Genain, C. P. (2005). Antibody responses against galactocerebroside are potential stage-specific biomarkers in multiple sclerosis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 116, 453-459. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.03.023
64. Meyer Sauteur, P. M., Bleisch, B., Voit, A., Maurer, F. P., Relly, C., Berger, C., et al. (2014a). Survey of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children with community-acquired pneumonia in Switzerland. Swiss Med. Wkly. 144, w14041.
65. Meyer Sauteur, P. M., Gansser-Kalin, U., Lautenschlager, S., and Goetschel, P. (2011). Fuchs syndrome associated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae (Stevens-Johnson syndrome without skin lesions). Pediatr. Dermatol. 28, 474-476. doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2010.01200.x
66. Meyer Sauteur, P. M., Goetschel, P., and Lautenschlager, S. (2012). Mycoplasma pneumoniae and mucositis-part of the Stevens-Johnson syndrome spectrum. J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 10, 740-746. doi: 10.1111/j.1610-0387.2012.07951.x
67. Meyer Sauteur, P. M., Hackenberg, A., Tio-Gillen, A. P., van Rossum, A. M., Berger, C., and Jacobs, B. C. (2015a). Intrathecal anti-GalC antibodies in Bickerstaff brain stem encephalitis. Neuropediatrics 46, 428-430. doi: 10.1055/s-0035-1566730
68. Meyer Sauteur, P. M., Jacobs, B. C., Spuesens, E. B., Jacobs, E., Nadal, D., Vink, C., et al. (2014b). Antibody responses to Mycoplasma pneumoniae: role in pathogenesis and diagnosis of encephalitis? PLoS Pathog. 10:e1003983. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003983
69. Meyer Sauteur, P. M., Moeller, A., Relly, C., Berger, C., Plecko, B., Nadal, D., et al. (2016). Swiss national prospective surveillance of paediatric Mycoplasma pneumoniae-associated encephalitis. Swiss Med. Wkly. 145, w14222. doi: 10.4414/smw.2016.14222
70. Meyer Sauteur, P. M., Relly, C., Hackenberg, A., Stahr, N., Berger, C., Bloemberg, G. V., et al. (2014c). Mycoplasma pneumoniae intrathecal antibody responses in Bickerstaff brain stem encephalitis. Neuropediatrics 45, 61-63. doi: 10.1055/s-0033-1348150
71. Meyer Sauteur, P. M., Roodbol, J., Hackenberg, A., de Wit, M. C., Vink, C., Berger, C., et al. (2015b). Severe childhood Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection: a case series. J. Peripher. Nerv. Syst. 20, 72-78. doi: 10.1111/jns.12121
72. Michelow, I. C., Olsen, K., Lozano, J., Rollins, N. K., Duffy, L. B., Ziegler, T., et al. (2004). Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized children. Pediatrics 113, 701-707. doi: 10.1542/peds.113.4.701
73. Mizutani, H., Kitayama, T., Hayakawa, A., and Nagayama, E. (1971). Delayed hypersensitivity in Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections. Lancet 1, 186-187. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(71)91956-8
74. Monteyne, P., Albert, F., Weissbrich, B., Zardini, E., Ciardi, M., Cleator, G. M., et al. (1997). The detection of intrathecal synthesis of anti-herpes simplex IgG antibodies: comparison between an antigen-mediated immunoblotting technique and antibody index calculations. European Union Concerted Action on Virus Meningitis and Encephalitis. J. Med. Virol. 53, 324-331. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9071(199712)53:4<324::AID-JMV3>3.0.CO;2-9
75. Narita, M. (2009). Pathogenesis of neurologic manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Pediatr. Neurol. 41, 159-166. doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2009.04.012
76. Narita, M. (2010). Pathogenesis of extrapulmonary manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection with special reference to pneumonia. J. Infect. Chemother. 16, 162-169. doi: 10.1007/s10156-010-0044-x
77. Narita, M., and Tanaka, H. (2007). Cytokines involved in the severe manifestations of pulmonary diseases caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 42, 397. doi: 10.1002/ppul.20445
78. Narita, M., and Yamada, S. (2001). Two distinct patterns of central nervous system complications due to Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33, 916-917. doi: 10.1086/322709
79. Okada, T., Morozumi, M., Tajima, T., Hasegawa, M., Sakata, H., Ohnari, S., et al. (2012). Rapid effectiveness of minocycline or doxycycline against macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in a 2011 outbreak among Japanese children. Clin. Infect. Dis. 55, 1642-1649. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis784
80. Peuchant, O., Menard, A., Renaudin, H., Morozumi, M., Ubukata, K., Bebear, C. M., et al. (2009). Increased macrolide resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in France directly detected in clinical specimens by real-time PCR and melting curve analysis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 64, 52-58. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkp160
81. Polkowska, A., Harjunpaa, A., Toikkanen, S., Lappalainen, M., Vuento, R., Vuorinen, T., et al. (2012). Increased incidence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Finland, 2010-2011. Euro Surveill. 17, 20072.
82. Principi, N., Esposito, S., Blasi, F., Allegra, L., and Mowgli study group (2001). Role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in children with community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32, 1281-1289. doi: 10.1086/319981
83. Reiber, H. (1994). Flow rate of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-a concept common to normal blood-CSF barrier function and to dysfunction in neurological diseases. J. Neurol. Sci. 122, 189-203. doi: 10.1016/0022-510X(94)90298-4
84. Saegeman, V., Proesmans, M., and Dumke, R. (2012). Management of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 31, 1210-1211. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e3182611cee
85. Saida, T., Saida, K., Dorfman, S. H., Silberberg, D. H., Sumner, A. J., Manning, M. C., et al. (1979). Experimental allergic neuritis induced by sensitization with galactocerebroside. Science 204, 1103-1106. doi: 10.1126/science.451555
86. Samukawa, M., Hirano, M., Tsugawa, J., Sakamoto, H., Tabata, E., Takada, K., et al. (2012). Refractory acute disseminated encephalomyelitis with anti-galactocerebroside antibody. Neurosci. Res. 74, 284-289. doi: 10.1016/j.neures.2012.09.006
87. Schalock, P. C., and Dinulos, J. G. (2009). Mycoplasma pneumoniae-induced cutaneous disease. Int. J. Dermatol. 48, 673-680; quiz 680-671. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2009.04154.x
88. Sinha, S., Prasad, K. N., Jain, D., Pandey, C. M., Jha, S., and Pradhan, S. (2007). Preceding infections and anti-ganglioside antibodies in patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome: a single centre prospective case-control study. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 13, 334-337. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01636.x
89. Spuesens, E. B., Fraaij, P. L., Visser, E. G., Hoogenboezem, T., Hop, W. C., van Adrichem, L. N., et al. (2013). Carriage of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in the upper respiratory tract of symptomatic and asymptomatic children: an observational study. PLoS Med. 10:e1001444. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001444
90. Spuesens, E. B., Meijer, A., Bierschenk, D., Hoogenboezem, T., Donker, G. A., Hartwig, N. G., et al. (2012). Macrolide resistance determination and molecular typing of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in respiratory specimens collected between 1997 and 2008 in The Netherlands. J. Clin. Microbiol. 50, 1999-2004. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00400-12
91. Spuesens, E. B., Oduber, M., Hoogenboezem, T., Sluijter, M., Hartwig, N. G., van Rossum, A. M., et al. (2009). Sequence variations in RepMP2/3 and RepMP4 elements reveal intragenomic homologous DNA recombination events in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Microbiology 155, 2182-2196. doi: 10.1099/mic.0.028506-0
92. Su, C. J., Chavoya, A., Dallo, S. F., and Baseman, J. B. (1990). Sequence divergency of the cytadhesin gene of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Infect. Immun. 58, 2669-2674.
93. Vink, C., Rudenko, G., and Seifert, H. S. (2012). Microbial antigenic variation mediated by homologous DNA recombination. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 36, 917-948. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00321.x
94. Waites, K. B., and Talkington, D. F. (2004). Mycoplasma pneumoniae and its role as a human pathogen. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17, 697-728. doi: 10.1128/CMR.17.4.697-728.2004
95. Wang, K., Gill, P., Perera, R., Thomson, A., Mant, D., and Harnden, A. (2012). Clinical symptoms and signs for the diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children and adolescents with community-acquired pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 10, CD009175. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009175.pub2
96. Wood, P. R., Hill, V. L., Burks, M. L., Peters, J. I., Singh, H., Kannan, T. R., et al. (2013). Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children with acute and refractory asthma. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 110, 321.e1-334.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.anai.2013.01.022
97. Yeh, J. J., Wang, Y. C., Hsu, W. H., and Kao, C. H. (2015). Incident asthma and Mycoplasma pneumoniae: a nationwide cohort study. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2015.09.032 [Epub ahead of print].
98. Zhao, F., Liu, G., Wu, J., Cao, B., Tao, X., He, L., et al. (2013). Surveillance of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in Beijing, China, from 2008 to 2012. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 57, 1521-1523. doi: 10.1128/AAC.02060-12
99. Zheng, X., Lee, S., Selvarangan, R., Qin, X., Tang, Y. W., Stiles, J., et al. (2015). Macrolide-Resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae, United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 21, 1470-1472. doi: 10.3201/eid2108.150273
100. Zhou, Y., Zhang, Y., Sheng, Y., Zhang, L., Shen, Z., and Chen, Z. (2014). More complications occurred in macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 58, 1034-1038. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01806-13
101. Zhu, C., Wu, Y., Chen, S., Yu, M., Zeng, Y., You, X., et al. (2012). Protective immune responses in mice induced by intramuscular and intranasal immunization with a Mycoplasma pneumoniae P1C DNA vaccine. Can. J. Microbiol. 58, 644-652. doi: 10.1139/w2012-041