Different levels of leadership for learning: Investigating differences between teachers individually and collectively using multilevel factor analysis of the 2011-2012 schools and staffing survey

International Journal of Leadership in Education

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 2018, Pages 197-225

  Boyce, Jared ^a   Bowers, Alex J ^b  

^a SRI INTERNATIONAL   (United States)

^b Columbia University ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84964022256     PISSN: 13603124     EISSN: 14645092     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13603124.2016.1139187     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. Arlot, S., & Celisse, A. (2010). A survey of cross-validation procedures for model selection. Statistics Surveys, 4, 40-79.
2. Asparouhov, T. (2006). General multi-level modeling with sampling weights. Communications in Statistics: Theory and Methods, 35, 439-460.
3. Asparouhov, T., Muthen, B., & Muthen, L. (2004). Weighting for unequal probability of selection in multilevel modeling. Mplus Web Notes, 8. Retrieved from http://www.statmodel.com/download/webnotes/MplusNote81.pdf
4. Avolio, B. J., & Bass, B. M. (1995). Individual consideration viewed at multiple levels of analysis: A multi-level framework for examining the diffusion of transformational leadership. Monographs in Organizational Behavior and Industrial Relations, 24, 53-74.
5. Bandalos, D. L., & Boehm-Kaufman, M. R. (2009). Four common misconceptions in exploratory factor analysis. In C. E. Lance & R. J. Vandenberg (Eds.), Statistical and methodological myths and urban legends: Doctrine, verity and fable in the organizational and social sciences (pp. 61-87). New York, NY: Routledge.
6. Barendse, M. T., Oort, F. J., & Timmerman, M. E. (2015). Using exploratory factor analysis to determine the dimensionality of discrete responses. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 22, 87-101.
7. Bell, B. A., Ferron, J. M., & Kromrey, J. D.. (2008). Cluster size in multilevel models: The impact of sparse data structures on point and interval estimates in two-level models. Proceedings of the joint statistical meetings (pp. 1122-1129). Alexandria, VA: American Statistical Association.
8. Bentler, P. M. (1980). Multivariate analysis with latent variables: Causal modeling. Annual Review of Psychology, 31, 419-456.
9. Bentler, P. M. (1992). On the fit of models to covariances and methodology to the bulletin. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 400-404
10. Bliese, P. D. (2000). Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis. In K. J. Klein & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations (pp. 349-381). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
11. Bowers, A. J., Blitz, M., Modest, M., Salisbury, J., & Halverson, R. (in press). How leaders agree with teachers in schools on measures of leadership practice: a two-level latent class analysis of the comprehensive assessment of leadership for learning. Teachers College Record.
12. Boyce, J. & Bowers, A. J. (2013, November). Examining the evolving research on instructional leadership from 25 years of the schools and staffing survey (SASS). A paper presented at the annual convention of the University Council for Educational Administration (UCEA), Indianapolis, IA.
13. Breiman, L., & Spector, P. (1992). Submodel selection and evaluation in regression. The X-random case. International Statistical Review/Revue Internationale de Statistique, 60, 291-319.
14. Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Neighborhood poverty, volume 1: Context and consequences for children (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
15. Brown, T. A. (2014). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York, NY: Guilford.
16. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136-162). Newsbury Park, CA: Sage.
17. Bryk, A., & Driscoll, M. (1988). The high school as community: Contextual influences and consequences for students and teachers. Madison, WI: National Center on Effective Secondary Schools, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
18. Cannata, M. (2007). Teacher community in elementary charter schools. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 15(11), 1-29.
19. Chan, D. (1998). Functional relations among constructs in the same content domain at different levels of analysis: A typology of composition models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 234-246.
20. Chen, G., Bliese, P. D., & Mathieu, J. E. (2005). Conceptual framework and statistical procedures for delineating and testing multilevel theories of homology. Organizational Research Methods, 8, 375-409.
21. Cohen, J., & Brown, P.. (2013). School climate and adult learning. In T. Dary & T. Pickeral (Eds.), School climate practices for implementation and sustainability (pp. 52-56). A school climate practice brief, number 1. New York, NY: National School Climate Center.
22. Crowder, K., & South, S. J. (2003). Neighborhood distress and school dropout: The variable significance of community context. Social Science Research, 32, 659-698.
23. D'Haenens, E., Van Damme, J., & Onghena, P. (2010). Multilevel exploratory factor analysis: Illustrating its surplus value in educational effectiveness research. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 21, 209-235.
24. De Maeyer, S., Rymenans, R., Van Petegem, P, van den Bergh, H., & Rijlaarsdam, G. (2007). Educational leadership and pupil achievement: The choice of a valid conceptual model to test effects in school effectiveness research. School effectiveness and school improvement, 18(2), 125-145.
25. DiStefano, C., & Morgan, G. B. (2014). A comparison of diagonal weighted least squares robust estimation techniques for ordinal data. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21, 425-438.
26. Dorfman, P. W., Hanges, P. J., & Brodbeck, F. C. (2004). Leadership and cultural variation: The identification of culturally endorsed leadership profiles. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 669-719). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
27. Drago-Severson, E. (2004). Helping teachers learn: Principal leadership for adult growth and development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
28. Dunn, E. C., Masyn, K. E., Jones, S. M., Subramanian, S. V., & Koenen, K. C. (2014). Measuring psychosocial environments using individual responses: An application of multilevel factor analysis to examining students in schools. Prevention Science, 16(5), 718-733.
29. Dyer, N. G., Hanges, P. J., & Hall, R. J. (2005). Applying multilevel confirmatory factor analysis techniques to the study of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 149-167.
30. Epstein, J. L., Sanders, M. G., Simon, B. S., Salinas, K. C., Jansorn, N. R., & Van Voorhis, F. L. (2002). School, family, and community partnerships: Your handbook for action. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
31. Everitt, J. (2005). Control in the classroom and influence on school policies: Types of teacher autonomy and teacher attrition. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association.
32. Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (1997). Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 827-844.
33. Goddard, R. D., Hoy, W. K., & Hoy, A. W. (2000). Collective teacher efficacy: Its meaning, measure, and impact on student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 37, 479-507.
34. Goff, P. T., Goldring, E., & Bickman, L. (2014). Predicting the gap: Perceptual congruence between American principals and their teachers’ ratings of leadership effectiveness. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 26, 333-359.
35. Goldring, R., Gray, L., & Bitterman, A. (2013). Characteristics of public and private elementary and secondary school teachers in the United States: Results from the 2011-2012 schools and staffing survey. First Look. (NCES 2013-2014). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
36. Goldring, R., Taie, S., Rizzo, L., Colby, D., Fraser, A., & Chandler, K. (2013). User’s manual for the 2011-2012 schools and staffing survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
37. Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219-247.
38. Graen, G., Novak, M. A., & Sommerkamp, P. (1982). The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 30, 109-131.
39. Gronn, P. (2002a). Distributed leadership. In K. A. Leithwood & P. Hallinger (Eds.), Second international handbook of educational leadership and administration (pp. 653-696). Dordrecht: Springer.
40. Gronn, P. (2002b). Distributed leadership as a unit of analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 13, 423-451.
41. Gustafsson, J.-E., & Stahl, P. A. (2005). STREAMS 2.0 user’s guide. Molndal: MultivariateWare.
42. Hairon, S., Goh, J. W. P, & Chua, C. S. K. (2015). Teacher leadership enactment in professional learning community contexts: Towards a better understanding of the phenomenon. School Leadership & Management, 35(2), 163-182. doi: 10.1080/13632434.2014.992776
43. Hallinger, P. (2011). Leadership for learning: Lessons from 40 years of empirical research. Journal of Educational Administration, 49, 125-142.
44. Hallinger, P. & Heck, R. H. (1996). Reassessing the principal's role in school effectiveness: A review of empirical research, 1980-1995. Educational Administration Quarterly, 32, 5-44.
45. Hallinger, P, & Heck, R. H. (2011). Conceptual and methodological issues in studying school leadership effects as a reciprocal process. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 22, 149-173.
46. Hallinger, P., & Murphy, J. (1985). Assessing the instructional management behavior of principals. The Elementary School Journal, 86, 217-247.
47. Halverson, R., & Dikkers, S. (2011, April) Comprehensive assessment of leadership for learning (CALL): Development and design of an online, formative assessment and feedback system for middle and high school leadership. Annual conference of the American Education Research Association, New Orleans, LA.
48. Halverson, R., Kelley, C., & Shaw, J. (2014). A call for improved school leadership. Phi Delta Kappan, 95, 57-60.
49. Harding, D. J. (2003). Counterfactual models of neighborhood effects: The effect of neighborhood poverty on dropping out and teenage pregnancy. American Journal of Sociology, 109, 676-719.
50. Hayton, J. C., Allen, D. G., & Scarpello, V. (2004). Factor retention decisions in exploratory factor analysis: A tutorial on parallel analysis. Organizational Research Methods, 7, 191-205.
51. Heck, R. H., & Hallinger, P. (2009). Assessing the contribution of distributed leadership to school improvement and growth in math achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 46, 659-689.
52. Heck, R. H., & Hallinger, P. (2010). Collaborative leadership effects on school improvement: Integrating unidirectional-and reciprocal-effects models. The Elementary School Journal, 111, 226-252.
53. Heck, R. H., & Hallinger, P. (2014). Modeling the longitudinal effects of school leadership on teaching and learning. Journal of Educational Administration, 52, 653-681.
54. Heck, R. H., & Moriyama, K. (2010). Examining relationships among elementary schools' contexts, leadership, instructional practices, and added-year outcomes: A regression discontinuity approach. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 21, 377-408.
55. Hendriks, M., & Steen, R. (2012). Results from school leadership effectiveness studies (2005-2010). In J. Scheerens (Ed.), school leadership effects revisited (pp. 65-129). Dordrecht: Springer.
56. Hox, J. (2010). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
57. Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55.
58. Hunt, D. J. (2003). Social capital and teacher perceptions of curricular control. Albany, NY: State University of New York at Albany.
59. Jacobson, M. J., & Wilensky, U. (2006). Complex systems in education: Scientific and educational importance and implications for the learning sciences. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15, 11-34.
60. James, L. R., & Jones, A. P. (1974). Organizational climate: A review of theory and research. Psychological bulletin, 81(12), 1096.
61. Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. (1981). LISREL V: Analysis of linear structural relationships by maximum likelihood and least squares methods. Chicago, IL: National Educational Resources Chicago.
62. Kaplan, D., & Elliott, P. R. (1997). A model-based approach to validating education indicators using multilevel structural equation modeling. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 22, 323-347.
63. Kelley, C., & Halverson, R. (2012). The comprehensive assessment of leadership for learning: A next generation formative evaluation and feedback system. Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk, 3, 1-22.
64. Kline, R. (2010). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
65. Knapp, M. S., Copland, M. A., & Talbert, J. E. (2003). Leading for learning: Reflective tools for school and district leaders. Seattle, WA: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, University of Washington.
66. Kohavi, R. (1995, August). A study of cross-validation and bootstrap for accuracy estimation and model selection. International Journal of Computer Applications, 14, 1137-1145.
67. Kozlowski, S. W. K., & Klein, K. J. (2000). A multilevel approach to theory and research in organizations: Contextual, temporal, and emergent processes. In K. Klein & S. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 3-90). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
68. Kruger, M., & Scheerens, J. (2012). Conceptual perspectives on school leadership. In J. Scheerens (Ed.), School leadership effects revisited: Review and meta-analysis of empirical studies (pp. 1-30). London: Springer.
69. Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2008). Linking leadership to student learning: The contributions of leader efficacy. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44, 496-528.
70. Leithwood, K., Mascall, B., & Strauss, T. (2009). What we have learned and where we go from here. In K. Leithwood, B. Mascall, & T. Strauss (Eds.), Distributed leadership according to the evidence (pp. 269-282). New York, NY: Routledge.
71. Leithwood, K. A., & Riehl, C. (2003). What we know about successful school leadership. Nottingham: National College for School Leadership.
72. Leithwood, K., & Seashore-Louis, K. (2011). Linking leadership to student learning. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
73. Lesh, R. (2006). Modeling students modeling abilities: The teaching and learning of complex systems in education. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15, 45-52.
74. Maas, C. J., & Hox, J. J. (2005). Sufficient sample sizes for multilevel modeling. Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1, 86-92.
75. MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1, 130-149.
76. Marks, H. M., & Printy, S. M. (2003). Principal leadership and school performance: An integration of transformational and instructional leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39, 370-397.
77. Marsh, H. W., Hau, K. T., & Wen, Z. (2004). In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler's (1999) Findings. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 11, 320-341.
78. Marzano, R. J., Waters, T., & McNulty, B. A. (2005). School leadership that works: From research to results. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria, VA.
79. Morgeson, F. P., DeRue, D. S., & Karam, E. P. (2009). Leadership in teams: A functional approach to understanding leadership structures and processes. Journal of Management, 36, 5-39.
80. Mumford, M. D. (1998). Situations, interactions, and followers: The case of individualized leadership. Monographs in Organizational Behavior and Industrial Relations, 24, 421-428.
81. Murphy, J. (2015). Creating communities of professionalism: Addressing cultural and structural barriers. Journal of Educational Administration, 53, 154-176.
82. Murphy, J., Elliott, S. N., Goldring, E., & Porter, A. C. (2006). Learning-centered leadership: A conceptual foundation. Nashville, TN: Learning Sciences Institute, Vanderbilt University (NJ1).
83. Murphy, J., Elliott, S. N., Goldring, E., & Porter, A. C. (2007). Leadership for learning: A research-based model and taxonomy of behaviors1. School Leadership and Management, 27, 179-201.
84. Muthen, B. O. (1991). Multilevel factor analysis of class and student achievement components. Journal of Educational Measurement, 28, 338-354.
85. Muthen, B. O. (1994). Multilevel covariance structure analysis. Sociological Methods & Research, 22, 376-398.
86. Muthen, B. O., & Asparouhov, T. (2011). Beyond multilevel regression modeling: Multilevel analysis in a general latent variable framework. In J. J. Hox (Ed.), Handbook of advanced multilevel analysis (pp. 15-40). New York, NY: Routledge.
87. Muthen, L. K., & Muthen, B. O. (1998-2015). Mplus user’s guide: The comprehensive modeling program for applied researchers. Los Angeles, CA: Author.
88. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2011a). Restricted-use data procedures manual. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs96/96860rev.pdf
89. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2011b). Teacher questionnaire, schools and staffing survey, 2011-2012 school year. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/pdf/1112/SASS4A.pdf
90. Neumerski, C. M. (2013). Rethinking instructional leadership, a review: What do we know about principal, teacher, and coach instructional leadership, and where should we go from here? Educational Administration Quarterly, 49, 310-347.
91. Ni, Y. (2012). Teacher working conditions in charter schools and traditional public schools: A comparative study. Teachers College Record, 114(3), 1-26.
92. O’Day, J. A. (2002). Complexity, accountability, and school improvement. Harvard Educational Review, 72, 293-329.
93. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2014). TALIS. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/talis.htm
94. Pallas, A. (1988). School climate in American high schools. The Teachers College Record, 89, 541-554.
95. Paulsen, R. (1991). Education, social class, and participation in collective action. Sociology of Education, 64(2), 96-110.
96. Porter, A. C., Polikoff, M. S., Goldring, E., Murphy, J., Elliott, S. N., & May, H. (2010). Developing a psychometrically sound assessment of school leadership: The VAL-ED as a case study. Educational Administration Quarterly, 46, 135-173.
97. Price, H. E. (2015). Principals’ social interactions with teachers: How principal-teacher social relations correlate with teachers’ perceptions of student engagement. Journal of Educational Administration, 53, 116-139.
98. Price, H. E., & Moolenaar, N. M. (2015). Principal-teacher relationships: Foregrounding the international importance of principals’ social relationships for school learning climates. Journal of Educational Administration, 53.
99. Printy, S. M., Marks, H. M., & Bowers, A. J. (2009). Integrated leadership: How principals and teachers share transformational and instructional influence. Jsl, 19, 504-532.
100. Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (Vol. 1). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
101. Robinson, V. (2011). Student-centered leadership (Vol. 15). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
102. Robinson, V. M., Lloyd, C. A., & Rowe, K. J. (2008). The impact of leadership on student outcomes: An analysis of the differential effects of leadership types. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44, 635-674.
103. Roby, D. E. (2004). Research on school attendance and student achievement: A study of Ohio schools. Educational Research Quarterly, 28, 3-16.
104. Rosen, J. A. (2007). An exploration of perceived decision making influence for teachers in public schools: Relationships between influence, charter schools, and school performance. Columbus, ohio: The Ohio State University.
105. Ross, J. A., & Gray, P. (2006). School leadership and student achievement: The mediating effects of teacher beliefs. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue Canadienne de Leducation, 29, 798-822.
106. Rowan, B., Raudenbush, S. W., & Kang, S. J. (1991). Organizational design in high schools: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Education, 99, 238-266.
107. Rowe, K. K., & Hill, P. W. (1998). Modeling educational effectiveness in classrooms: The use of multi-level structural equations to model students’ progress. Educational Research and Evaluation, 4, 307-347.
108. Rumberger, R. W., & Palardy, G. J. (2004). Multilevel models for school effectiveness research. In D. Kaplan (Ed.), Handbook on quantitative methodology for the social sciences (pp. 235-258). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
109. Ryan, A. M., & Patrick, H. (2001). The classroom social environment and changes in adolescents' motivation and engagement during middle school. American Educational Research Journal, 38, 437-460.
110. Skinner, R. R. (2008). Autonomy, working conditions, and teacher satisfaction: Does the public charter school bargain make a difference?. Washington, D.C: The George Washington University.
111. Smith, T. M., & Rowley, K. J. (2005). Enhancing commitment or tightening control: The function of teacher professional development in an era of accountability. Educational Policy, 19, 126-154.
112. Spillane, J. P., Halverson, R., & Diamond, J. B. (2001). Investigating school leadership practice: A distributed perspective. Educational Researcher, 30, 23-28.
113. Spillane, J. P., Halverson, R., & Diamond, J. B. (2004). Towards a theory of leadership practice: A distributed perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36, 3-34.
114. Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173-180.
115. Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
116. Trickett, E. J., & Moos, R. H. (1973). Social environment of junior high and high school classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 65, 93-102.
117. Urick, A., & Bowers, A. J. (2011). What influences principals' perceptions of academic climate? A nationally representative study of the direct effects of perception on climate. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 10, 322-348.
118. Urick, A. M. (2012). To what extent do typologies of school leaders across the US predict teacher attrition? A multilevel latent class analysis of principals and teachers (Doctoral dissertation). San Antonio, TX: The University of Texas at San Antonio.
119. Urick, A. & Bowers, A. J. (2014a, April). How teacher and principal perceptions influence instructional leadership internationally: A multilevel factor analysis of TALIS 2008. A paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Philadelphia, PA.
120. Urick, A., & Bowers, A. J. (2014b). How does principal perception of academic climate measure up? The impact of principal perceptions on student academic climate and achievement in high school. Journal of School Leadership, 24, 386-414.
121. Urick, A., & Bowers, A. J. (2014c). What are the different types of principals across the United States? A Latent class analysis of principal perception of leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 50, 96-134. doi: 10.1177/0013161X13489019
122. van der Gaag, M., Hoffman, T., Remijsen, M., Hijman, R., de Haan, L., van Meijel, B., Wiersma, D. (2006). The five-factor model of the positive and negative syndrome scale II: A ten-fold cross-validation of a revised model. Schizophrenia Research, 85, 280-287.
123. Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., & Liden, R. C. (1997). Perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange: A social exchange perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 40, 82-111.
124. Weathers, J. M. (2011). Teacher community in urban elementary schools: The role of leadership and bureaucratic accountability. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 19(3), 1-42.
125. Willmott, R. (1999). Structure, agency and the sociology of education: Rescuing analytical dualism. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 20, 5-21.
126. Yen, I. H., & Syme, S. L. (1999). The social environment and health: A discussion of the epidemiologic literature. Annual Review of Public Health, 20, 287-308.
127. York-Barr, J., & Duke, K. (2004). What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research, 74, 255-316.
128. Zhang, P. (1993). Model selection via multifold cross validation. The Annals of Statistics, 21, 299-313.