Olfactory toxicity in humans and experimental animals

Toxicology of the Nose and Upper Airways

Volumn , Issue , 2016, Pages 215-241

  Dalton, Pamela ^a  

^a MONELL CHEMICAL SENSES CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84963640287     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (168)

1. Lowe G, Gold GH. The spatial distributions of odorant sensitivity and odorant-induced currents in salamander olfactory receptor cells. J Physiol 1991; 442:147-168.
2. Sunderman FW Jr. Nasal toxicity, carcinogenicity, and olfactory uptake of metals. Ann Clin Lab Sci 2001; 31(1):3-24.
3. Sorokin SP. The respiratory system. In: Weiss L. ed., Cell and Tissue Biology: A Textbook of Histology 6th ed. Baltimore: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1988:753-814.
4. Gross EA, Swenberg JA, Fields S. Comparative morphometry of the nasal cavity in rats and mice. J Anatomy 1982; 135:83-88.
5. Clerico DM, To WC, Lanza DC. Anatomy of the human nasal passages. In: Doty RL, ed. Handbook of Olfaction and Gustation, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2003:1-16.
6. Stuiver M. Biophysics of the Sense of Smell. Groningen, The Netherlands: Rijks University, 1958.
7. Hahn I, Scherer PW, Mozell MM. Velocity profiles measured for airflow through a large-scale model of the human nasal cavity. J Appl Physicol 1993; 75:2273-2287.
8. Keyhani K, Scherer PW, Mozell MM. Numerical simulation of airflow in the human nasal cavity. J Biomech Eng 1995; 117(4):429-441.
9. Subramaniam RP, Richardson RB, Morgan KT, et al. Computational fluid dynamics simulations of inspiratory airflow in the human nose and nasopharynx. Inhal Toxicol 1999; 10:91-120.
10. Kelly JT, Prasad AK, Wexler AS. Detailed flow patterns in the nasal cavity. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89:323-337.
11. Loo AT, Youngentob SL, Kent PF, et al. The aging olfactory epithelium: neurogenesis, response to damage, and odorant-induced activity. Dev Neurosci 1996; 14(7/8):881-900.
12. Halpern BP. Environmental factors affecting chemoreceptors: an overview. Environ Health Perspect 1982; 44:101-105.
13. Schwob JE, Youngentob SL, Mezza RC. Reconstitution of the rat olfactory epithelium after methyl bromide-induced lesion. J Comp Neurol 1995; 359(1):15-37.
14. Schwob JE, Youngentob SL, Ring G, et al. Reinnervation of the rat olfactory bulb after methyl bromide-induced lesion: timing and extent of reinnervation. J Comp Neurol 1999; 412:439-457.
15. Mackenzie M. A manual of diseases of the throat and nose: Vol. II: Diseases of the oesophagus, nose, and naso-pharynx. New York, NY: Wood, 1884.
16. Doty RL, Bartoshuk LM, Snow JB Jr. Causes of olfactory and gustatory disorders. In: Getchell TV, Doty RL, Bartoshuk LM, Snow JB Jr., eds. Smell and Taste in Health and Disease. New York, NY: Raven Press, 1991:449-462.
17. Shusterman D. Toxicology of nasal irritants. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2003; 3:258-265.
18. Amoore JE. Effects of chemical exposure on olfaction in humans. In: Barrow CS, ed. Toxicology of the Nasal Passages. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1986:155-190.
19. Cowart BJ, Rawson NE. Olfaction. In: Goldstein EB, ed. The Blackwell Handbook of Perception. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2001:567-600.
20. Emmett EA. Parosmia and hyposmia induced by solvent exposure. Br J Ind Med 1976; 33:196-198.
21. Prudhomme JC, Shusterman D, Blanc PD. Acute-onset persistent olfactory deficit resulting from multiple overexposures to ammonia vapor at work. J Am Board Fam Pract 1998; 11(1):66-69.
22. Corwin J, Loury M, Gilbert AN. Workplace, age and sex as mediators of olfactory function: data from the National Geographic Smell Survey. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 1995; 50B(4):179-186.
23. Elsner RJ. Environment and medication use influence olfactory abilities of older adults. J Nutr Health Aging 2001; 5(1):5-10.
24. Dalton P, Lees PSJ, Cowart BJ, et al. Olfactory function in workers exposed to styrene in the reinforced-plastics industry. Am J Ind Med 2003; 44:1-11.
25. Sandmark B, Broms I, Löfgren L, et al. Olfactory function in painters exposed to organic solvents. Scand J Work Environ Health 1989; 15:60-63.
26. Schwartz BS, Ford DP, Bolla KI, et al. Solvent-associated decrements in olfactory function in paint manufacturing workers. Am J Ind Med 1990; 18:697-706.
27. Schwartz BS, Ford DP, Bolla KI, et al. Solvent-associated olfactory dysfunction: not a predictor of deficits in learning and memory. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148(6):751-756.
28. Schwartz BS, Doty RL, Monroe C, et al. Olfactory function in chemical workers exposed to acrylate and methacrylate vapors. Am J Public Health 1989; 79(5):613-618.
29. Abdo KM, Haseman JK, Nyska A. Isobutyraldehyde administered by inhalation (whole body exposure) for up to thirteen weeks or two years was a respiratory tract toxicant but was not carcinogenic in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice. Toxicol Sci 1998; 42(2):136-151.
30. Hurtt ME, Thomas DA, Working PK, et al. Degeneration and regeneration of the olfactory epithelium following inhalation exposure to methyl bromide: pathology, cell kinetics, and olfactory functioni. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1988; 94: 311-328.
31. 50 concentration of chlorine gas in the nasal passages of rats and mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1983; 71:225-236.
32. Monticello TM, Miller FJ, Morgan KT. Regional increases in rat nasal epithelial cell proliferation following acute and subchronic inhalation of formaldehyde. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1991; 111:409-421.
33. Center MB, Deamer-Melia NJ, Wermore BA, et al. Herbicides and olfac-tory/neurotoxicity responses. Rev Toxicol 1998; 2:93-112.
34. Feron VJ, Woutersen RA, Spit BJ. Pathology of chronic nasal toxic responses including cancer. In: Barrow CS, ed. Toxicology of the Nasal Passages. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1986:67-89.
35. Ekblom A, Flock A, Hansson P, et al. Ultrastructural and electrophysiological changes in the olfactory epithelium following exposure to organic solvents. Acta Otolaryngol 1984; 98:351-361.
36. Rose CS, Heywood PC, Costanzo RM. Olfactory impairment after chronic occupational cadmium exposure. J Occup Med 1992; 34:600-605.
37. Odkvist LM, Edling C, Hellquist H. Influence of vapors on the nasal mucosa among industry workers. Rhinology 1985; 23:121-127.
38. Appelman LM, Woutersen RA, Feron VJ. Inhalation toxicity of acetaldehyde in rats. I. Acute and subacute studies. Toxicology 1982; 23:293-307.
39. Woutersen RA, Appelman LM, Van Carderen-Hoetmer A, et al. Inhalation toxicity of acetaldehyde in rats. Toxicology 1986; 41:213-231.
40. Woutersen RA, Appelman LM, Feron VJ, et al. Inhalation toxicity of acetaldehyde in rats. II. Carcinogenicity study: interim results after 15 months. Toxicology 1984; 31:123-133.
41. Buckley LA, Jiang XZ, James RA, et al. Respiratory tract lesions induced by sensory irritants at the RD 50 concentration. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1984; 74: 417-429.
42. Miller RR, Ayres JA, Jersey CC, et al. Inhalation toxicity of acrylic acid. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1981; 1:271-277.
43. Warheit DB, Kelly DP, Carakostas MC, et al. A 90-day inhalation toxicity study with benomyl in rats. Fundam Appl Toxicicol 1989; 12:333-345.
44. Brittebo EB, Eriksson C, Brandt I. Activation and toxicity of bromobenzene in nasal tissues in mice. Arch Toxicol 1990; 64:54-60.
45. Sun TJ, Miller ML, Hastings L. Effects of inhalation of cadmium on the rat olfactory system: behavior and morphology. Nuerotoxicol Teratol 1996; 18:89-98.
46. Wolf DC, Morgan KT, Cross EA, et al. A 2-year Inhalation exposure of female and male B6C3F1 mice and F344 rats to chlorine gas induces lesions confined to the nose. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1995; 24(1):111-131.
47. Ibanes JD, Leininger JR, Jarabek AM, et al. Reexamination of respiratory tract responses in rats, mice, and rhesus monkeys chronically exposed to inhaled chlorine. Inhal Toxicol 1996; 8(9):859-876.
48. Mery S, Larson JL, Butterworth BE, et al. Nasal toxicity of chloroform in male F344 rats and female B6C3F(1) mice following a 1-week inhalation exposure. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1994; 125(2):214-227.
49. Gu J, Walker VE, Lipinskas TW, et al. Intraperitoneal administration of coumarin causes tissue-selective depletion of cytochromes P450 and cytotoxicity in the olfactory mucosa. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1997; 146:133-143.
50. Brittebo EB, Eriksson C, Feil V, et al. Toxicity of 2,6-dichlorothiobenzamide (chloroth-iamid) and 2,6-dicholorobenzamide in the olfactory nasal mucosa of mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1991; 17:92-102.
51. Keenan CM, Kelly DP, Bogdanffy MS. Degeneration and recovery of rat olfactory epithelium following inhalation of dibasic esters. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1990; 15:381-393.
52. Bogdanffy MS, Frame SR. Olfactory mucosal toxicity-integration of morphological and biochemical data in mechanistic studies-dibasic esters as an example. Inhal Toxicol 1994; 6:205-219.
53. Reznik G, Stinson SF, Ward JM. Respiratory pathology in rats and mice after inhalation of 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane or 1,2-dibromoethane for 13 weeks. Arch Tox-ocol 1980; 46:233-240.
54. Stott WT, Young JT, Calhoun LL, et al. Subchronic toxicity of inhaled technical grade 1,3-dichlopropene in rats and mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1988; 11:207-220.
55. Lomax LG, Stott WT, Johnson KA, et al. The chronic toxicity and oncogenicity of inhaled technical-grade 1,3-dichloropropene in rats and mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1989; 12:418-431.
56. Buckley LA, Morgan KT, Swenberg JA, et al. The toxicity of dimethylamine in F-344 rats and B6C3P1 mice following a 1-year inhalation exposure. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1985; 5:341-352.
57. Nikula KJ, Sun JD, Barr EB, et al. 13 Week repeated inhalation exposure of F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice to ferrocene. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1993; 21:127-139.
58. Apfelbach R, Weiler E. Sensitivity to odors in Wistar rats is reduced after low-level formaldehyde-gas exposure. Naturwissenschaften 1991; 78(5):221-223.
59. Feron VJ, Kruysse A. Effects of exposure to furfural vapour in hamsters simultaneously treated with benzo(alpha) pyreme or diethyllnitrosamine. Toxicology 1978; 11:127-144.
60. Miller RA, Mellick PW, Leach CL, et al. Nasal toxicity in B6C3F1 mice inhaling fur-furyl alcohol for 2 to 13 weeks. Toxicologist 1991; 11:669a.
61. Foureman GL, Greenberg MM, Sangha GK, et al. Evaluation of nasal tract lesions in derivation of the inhalation reference concentration for hexamethylene diisocyanite. Inhal Toxicol 1999; 6(suppl):341-355.
62. Genter MB, Llorens J, O'Callaghan JP, et al. Olfactory toxicity of beta,beta'-iminodipropionitrile in the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992; 263(3):1432-1439.
63. Hastings L, Miller ML, Minnema D, et al. Effects of methyl bromide on the rat olfactory system. Chem Senses 2002; 16:43-55.
64. Morse CC, Boyd MR, Witschi H. The effect of 3-methylfuran inhalation exposure on the rat nasal cavity Toxicology 1984; 30:195-204.
65. Turk MA, Henk WG, Flory W. 3-Methylindole-induced nasal mucosa damage in mice. Vet Pathol 1987; 24:400-403.
66. Peele DB, Allison SD, Bolon B, et al. Functional deficits produced by 3 methylindole-induced olfactory mucosal damage revealed by a simple olfactory learning task. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1991; 107:191-202.
67. Uraih LC, Talley FA, Mitsumori K, et al. Ultrastructural changes in the nasal mucosa of Fischer 344 rats and B6C3F1 mice following an acute exposure to methyl isocyanate. Environ Health Perspect 1987; 72:77-88.
68. Plopper CG, Suverkropp C, Morin D, et al. Relationship of cytochrome P-450 activity to Clara cell cytoxicity. Histopathologic comparison of the respiratory tract of mice, rats and hamsters after parenternal administration of napthalene. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992; 261:353-363.
69. Dunnick JK, Elwell MR, Benson JM, et al. Lung toxicity after 13-week inhalation exposure to nickel oxide, nickel subsulfide, or nickel sulfate hexahydrate in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1989; 12:584-594.
70. Evans JE, Miller ML, Andrings A, et al. Behavioral, histological and neurochemical effects of nickel (II) on the rat olfactory system. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1995; 130:209-220.
71. Ranggatabbu C, Sleight SD. Development of preneoplastic lesions in the liver and nasal epithelium of rats initiated with N-nitrosodimethylamine or N-nitrosopyrrolidine and promoted with polybrominated biphenyls. Food Chem Toxicol 1992; 30(11):921-926.
72. Ranggatabbu C, Sleight SD. Sequential study in rats of nasal and hepatic lesions induced by N-nitrosopyrrolidine. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1992; 19:147-156.
73. Miller RR, Hermann EA, Young, JT, et al. Propylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate metabolism, disposition, and short-term vapor inhalation toxicity studies. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1984; 75:521-530.
74. Eldridge SR, Bogdanffy MS, Jokinen MP, et al. Effects of propylene oxide on nasal epithelial cell proliferation in F344 rats. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1995; 27:25-32.
75. Nikula KJ, Novak RF, Chang IY, et al. Induction of nasal carboxylesterase in F344 rats following inhalation exposure to pyridine. Drug Metab Dispos 1995; 23(5):529-535.
76. Pino M, Valerio MG, Miller GK, et al. Toxicologic and carcinogenic effects of the type iv phosphodiesterase inhibitor RP 73401 on the nasal olfactory tissue in rats. Toxicol Pathol 1999; 27:383-394.
77. Giddens WE, Fairchild GA. Effects of sulfur dioxide on the nasal mucosa of mice. Arch Environ Health 1972; 25:166-173.
78. Eisenbrandt DL, Nitschke KD. Inhalation toxicity of sulfuryl fluoride in rats and rabbits. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1989; 12:540-557.
79. Kolesar GB, Siddiqui WH, Geil RG, et al. Subchronic inhalation toxicity of tetram-ethoxysilane in rats. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1989; 13:285-295.
80. Jacquot L, Pourie G, Buron G, et al. Effects of toluene inhalation exposure on olfactory functioning: behavioral and histological assessment. Toxicol Lett 2006; 165(1):57-65.
81. Gaskell BA, Hext PM, Pigott GH, et al. Olfactory and hepatic-changes following inhalation of 3-trifluoromethyl pyridine in rats. Toxicology 1988; 50(1):57-68.
82. Youngentob SL, Schwob JE, Sheehe PE, et al. Odorant threshold following methyl bromide-induced lesions of the olfactory epithelium. Physiol Behav 1997; 62(6):1241-1252.
83. Slotnick B, Glover P, Bodyak N. Does intranasal application of zinc sulfate produce anosmia in the rat? Behav Neurosci 2000; 114(4):814-829.
84. Feron VJ, Arts JH, Kuper CF, et al. Health risks associated with inhaled nasal toxicants. Crit Rev Toxicol 2001; 31(3):313-347.
85. Schiffman SS, Nagle HT. Effect of environmental pollutants on taste and smell. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1992; 106:693-700.
86. Mascagni P, Consonni D, Bregante G, et al. Olfactory function in workers exposed to moderate airborne cadmium levels. Neurotoxicology 2003; 24(4-5):717-724.
87. Davis JM, Dorman D. Health risk assessments of manganese-differing perspectives: session VIII summary and research needs. Neurotoxicology 1998; 19(3):488-489.
88. Friberg L. Health hazards in the manufacture of alkaline accumulators with special reference to chronic cadmium poisoning. Acta Med Scand 1950; 138(suppl 240):1-124.
89. Leopold DA. Nasal toxicity: end point of concern in humans. Inhal Toxicol 1994; 6:23-39.
90. Liu YZ, Huang JX, Luo CM, et al. Effects of cadmium on cadmium smelter workers. Scand J Work Environ Health 1985; 11:29-32.
91. Rydzewski B, Sulkowski W, Miarzynska M. Olfactory disorders induced by cadmium exposure: a clinical study. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 1998; 11(3):235-245.
92. Sulkowski WJ, Rydzewski B, Miarzynska M. Smell impairment in workers occupationally exposed to cadmium. Acta Otolaryngol 2000; 120(2):316-318.
93. Amdur MO, Doull J, Klaassen CD. Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, 4th ed. New York, Ny: Pergamon Press, 1991.
94. Kitamura F, Yokoyama K, Araki S, et al. Increase of olfactory threshold in plating factory workers exposed to chromium in Korea. Ind Health 2003; 41(3): 279-285.
95. Murphy C, Doty RL, Duncan HJ. Clinical disorders of olfaction. In: Doty RL, ed. Handbook of Olfaction and Gustation, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, 2003:461-478.
96. Caruso A, Lucchini R, Toffoletto F, et al. Study of the olfactory function of a group of workers with significant lead exposure. G Ital Med Lav Ergon 2007; 29(3):460-463.
97. Mergler D, Huel G, Bowler R, et al. Nervous system dysfunction among workers with long-term exposure to manganese. Environ Res 1994; 64:151-180.
98. Antunes MB, Bowler R, Doty RL. San-Francisco/Oakland Bay Bridge welder study. Neurology 2007; 69(12):1278-1284.
99. Leroyer C, Malo J, Girard D,et al. Chronic rhinitis in workers at risk of reactive airways dysfunction syndrome due to exposure to chlorine. Occup Environ Med 1999; 56:334-338.
100. Morgan KT. Nasal dosimetry, lesion distribution, and the toxicologic pathologist: a brief review. Inhal Toxicol 1994; (suppl 6):41-57.
101. Morgott DA. Acetone. In: Clayton GD, Clayton FE, eds. Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, 4th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993:149-281.
102. Granstrand P, Nylander-French L, Holmstrom M. Biomarkers of nasal inflammation in wood-surface coating industry workers. Am J Ind Med 1998; 33:392-399.
103. Callaghan-Rose M, Nickola TJ, Voynow JA. Airway mucus obstruction: Mucin glycoproteins, MUC gene regulation and goblet cell hyperplasia. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2001; 25:533-537.
104. Clayton G, Clayton F. Patty's industrial hygiene and toxicology, 3rd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1981.
105. Edling C, Hellquist H, Odkvist LM. Occupational exposure to formaldehyde and histopathological changes in the nasal mucosa. Br J Ind Med 1988; 45:761-765.
106. Baradana EJ, Montanaro A. Formaldehyde: an analysis of its respiratory, cutaneous, and immunologic effects. Ann Allergy 1991; 66:441-452.
107. Pazdrak K, Gorski P, Krakowiak A, et al. Changes in nasal lavage fluid due to formaldehyde inhalation. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1993; 64:515-519.
108. Cain WS, See LC, Tosun T. Irritation and odor from formaldehyde: chamber studies. ASHRAE Proc 1986; 14:126-137.
109. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (Ed.). Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices; 1993-1994; Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1993.
110. Boysen M, Solberg LA, Torjussen W, et al. Histological changes, rhinoscopical findings and nickel concentration in plasma and urine in retired nickel workers. Acta Otolaryngol 1984; 97(1-2):105-115.
111. Seilkop SK, Oller AR. Respiratory cancer risks associated with low-level nickel exposure: an integrated assessment based on animal, epidemiological, and mechanistic data. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2003; 37(2):173-190.
112. National Toxicology Program. Toxicological and carcinogenesis studies of nickel subsulfide in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice; NPT TR 453; NIH Publication Series No. 96-3369: 96.
113. National Toxicology Program. Toxicological and carcinogenesis studies of nickel oxide in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice; NTP TR 451; NIH Publication Series No. 96-3363: 96.
114. National Toxicology Program. Toxicological and carcinogenesis studies of nickel sulfate hexahydrate-in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice; NTP TR 454; NIH Publication Series No. 96-3370: 96.
115. Friberg L. Proteinuria and kidney injury among workmen exposed to cadmium and nickel dust. J Ind Hyg Toxicol 1948; 30:32-36.
116. Baader EW. Chronic cadmium poisoning. Ind Med Surg 1952; 21:427-430.
117. Adams RG, Crabtree N. Anosmia in alkaline battery workers. Br J Ind Med 1961; 18:216-221.
118. Watanabe S, Fukuchi Y. Occupational impairment of the olfactory sense of chromate producing workers. J Ind Health 2000; 23:606-611.
119. Dingle AF. Nasal disease in chrome workers. Clin Otolaryngol 1992; 17:287-288.
120. Alarie Y, Schaper M, Nielsen GD, et al. Estimating the sensory irritating potency of airborne nonreactive volatile organic chemicals and their mixtures. SAR QSAR Environ Res 1996; 5(3):151-165.
121. Morris JB, Hassett DN, Blanchard KT. A physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for nasal uptake and metabolism of nonreactive vapors. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1993; 123:120-129.
122. Schwartz BS, Bolla KI, Ford DP, et al. Solvent-associated decrements in olfactory function in paint manufacturing workers. Am J Ind Med 1990; 18:697-706.
123. Sandmark B, Broms I, Lofgren L, et al. Olfactory function in painters exposed to organic solvents. Scand J Work Environ Health 1989; 11:703-714.
124. Dalton P, Wysocki CJ, Brody MJ, et al. Perceived odor, irritation and health symptoms following short-term exposure to acetone. Am J Ind Med 1997; 31: 558-569.
125. Seeber A, Kiesswetter RR, Vangala M, et al. Combined exposure to organic solvents: an experimental approach using acetone and ethyl acetate. Appl Psychol Int Rev 1992; 41(3):281-292.
126. Ahlstrom R, Berglund B, Berglund U, et al. Impaired odor perception in tank cleaners. Scand J Work Environ Health 1986; 12:574-581.
127. Mann WJ, Muttray A, Schaefer D, et al. Exposure to 200 ppm of methanol increases the concentrations of interleukin-1beta and interleukin-8 in nasal secretions of healthy volunteers. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 2002; 111(7 Pt 1):633-638.
128. Kimbell JS, Gross EA, Joyner DR, et al. Application of computational fluid dynamics to regional dosimetry of inhaled chemicals in the upper respiratory tract of the rat. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1993; 121(2):253-263.
129. Jiang X-Z, Morgan KT, Beauchamp RO Jr. Histopathology of acute and subacute nasal toxicity. In: Barrow CS, ed. Toxicology of the Nasal Passages. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp., 1986:51-66.
130. Wysocki CJ, Dalton P, Brody MJ, et al. Acetone odor and irritation thresholds obtained from acetone-exposed factory workers and from control (occupationally non-exposed) subjects. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1997; 58:704-712.
131. Smeets MA, Maute CM, Dalton P. Acute sensory irritation from exposure to isopropanol in workers and controls: objective versus subjective effects. Ann Occup Hyg 2002; (46):359-373.
132. Gosselin NH, Brunet RC, Carrier G. Comparative occupational exposures to formaldehyde released from inhaled wood product dusts versus that in vapor form. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 2003; 18(5):384-393.
133. Vaughan TL, Stewart PA, Teschke K, et al. Occupational exposure to formaldehyde and wood dust and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Occup Environ Med 2000; 57(6):376-384.
134. Schiffman SS, Walker JM, Dalton P, et al. Potential health effects of odor from animal operations, wastewater treatment, and recycling of byproducts. J Agromedicine 2001; 7(1):7-81.
135. Riechelmann H, Rettinger G, Weschta M, et al. Effects of low-toxicity particulate matter on human nasal function. J Occup Environ Med 2003; 45(1):54-60.
136. McDermott RD, Wilson TL, Dalton PH. Chemosensory function in firefighters: a longitudinal and cross-sectional analysis. Chem Senses 2008; 33:S82-S83.
137. Hudson R, Arriola A, Martinez-Gomez M, et al. Effect of air pollution on olfactory function in residents of Mexico City. Chem Senses 2006; 31(1):79-85.
138. Fukami T, Katoh M, Yamazaki H, et al. Human cytochrome p450 2A13 efficiently metabolizes chemicals in air pollutants: naphthalene, styrene, and toluene. Chem Res Toxicol 2008; 21(3):720-725.
139. Zhang XL, Chen Y, Liu YQ, et al. Single nucleotide polymorphisms of the human CYP2A13 gene: evidence for a null allele. Drug Metab Dispos 2003; 31(9): 1081-1085.
140. Zhang XL, Su T, Zhang QY, et al. Genetic polymorphisms of the human CYP2A13 gene: identification of single-nucleotide polymorphisms and functional characterization of an Arg257Cys variant. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002; 302(2):416-423.
141. von Weymarn LB, Brown KM, Murphy SE. Inactivation of CYP2A6 and CYP2A13 during nicotine metabolism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006; 316(1):295-303.
142. Hong JY, Smith T, Lee MJ, et al. Metabolism of carcinogenic nitrosamines by rat nasal-mucosa and the effect of diallyl sulfide. Cancer Res 1991; 51(5):1509-1514.
143. Foy JWD, Schatz RA. Inhibition of rat respiratory-tract cytochrome P-450 activity after acute low-level m-xylene inhalation: role in 1-nitronaphthalene toxicity. Inhal Toxicol 2004; 16(3):125-132.
144. Vaidyanathan A, Foy JWD, Schatz RA. Inhibition of rat respiratory-tract cytochrome P-450 isozymes following inhalation of m-xylene: possible role of metabolites. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2003; 66(12):1133-1143.
145. Visoni S, Meireles N, Monteiro L, et al. Different modes of inhibition of mouse Cyp2a5 and rat CYP2A3 by the food-derived 8-methoxypsoralen. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46(3):1190-1195.
146. Su T, Bao ZP, Zhang QY, et al. Human cytochrome p450 CYP2A13: predominant expression in the respiratory tract and its high efficiency metabolic activation of a tobacco-specific carcinogen, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone. Cancer Res 2000; 60(18):5074-5079.
147. Wong HL, Zhang XL, Zhang QY, et al. Metabolic activation of the tobacco carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone by cytochrome P450 2A13 in human fetal nasal microsomes. Chem Res Toxicol 2005; 18(6):913-918.
148. Ding XX, Kaminsky LS. Human extrahepatic cytochromes P450: function in xeno-biotic metabolism and tissue-selective chemical toxicity in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2003; 43:149-173.
149. Ding XX, Spink DC, Bhama JK, et al. Metabolic activation of 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile, an olfactory-specific toxicant, by rat, rabbit, and human cytochromes p450. Mol Pharmacol 1996; 49(6):1113-1121.
150. Wilmer JW, Woutersen RA, Appelman LM, et al. Subchronic (13-week) inhalation toxicity study of formaldehyde in male rats: 8-hour intermittent versus 8-hour continuous exposures. Toxicol Lett 1989; 47(3):287-293.
151. Schlage WK, Bulles H, Friedrichs D, et al. Cytokeratin patterns of epithelial cells of the rat nasal cavity in vivo and in vitro. Toxicol Lett 1996; 88(1-3):65-73.
152. Klimek L, Hundorf I, Delank KW, et al. Assessment of rhinological parameters for evaluating the effects of airborne irritants to the nasal epithelium. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2002; 75(5):291-297.
153. Keyhani K, Scherer PW, Mozell MM. A numerical model of nasal odorant transport for the analysis of human olfaction. J Theor Biol 1997; 186:279-301.
154. Youngentob SL, Stern NM, Mozell M, et al. Effect of airway resistance on perceived odor intensity. Am J Otolaryngol 1986; 7:187-193.
155. Leopold DA. The relationship between nasal anatomy and human olfaction. Laryngoscope 1988; 98(11):1232-1238.
156. Hornung DE, Leopold DA. Relationship between uninasal anatomy and uninasal olfactory ability Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1999; 125:53-58.
157. Doty RL, Mishra A. Olfaction and its alteration by nasal obstruction, rhinitis, and rhinosinusitis. Laryngoscope 2001; 111(3):409-423.
158. Zhao K, Scherer PW, Hajiloo SA, et al. Effect of anatomy on human nasal air flow and odorant transport patterns: implications for olfaction. Chem Senses. 2004; 29:365-379.
159. Trotier D, Bensimon JL, Herman P, et al. Inflammatory obstruction of the olfactory clefts and olfactory loss in humans: a new syndrome? Chem Senses 2007; 32(3):285-292.
160. Zhao K, Dalton P. The way the wind blows: implications of modeling nasal airflow. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2007; 7:117-125.
161. Harkema, 1999.
162. Bogdanffy and Jarabek, 1995.
163. Dahl and Hadley, 1991.
164. Bond JA. Review of the toxicology of styrene. CRC Crit Rev Toxicol 1989; 19(3):227-249.
165. Green T. The metabolism of styrene by rat, mouse and human nasal cytochrome P-450's; CTL/R/1412; Cheshire, U.K., 99.
166. Green T, Lee R, Toghill A, et al. The toxicity of styrene to the nasal epithelium of mice and rats: studies on the mode of action and relevance to humans. Chem Biol Interact 2001; 137(2):185-202.
167. Green T, Lee R, Moore RB, et al. Acetochlor-induced rat nasal tumors: further studies on the mode of action and relevance to humans. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2000; 32(1):127-133.
168. Morgan KT. Nasal dosimetry, lesion distribution, and the toxicologic pathologist-a brief review. Inhal Toxicol 1994; 6:41-57.