Human Genetics and the Causal Role of Lipoprotein(a) for Various Diseases

Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2016, Pages 87-100

  Kronenberg, Florian ^a  

^a INNSBRUCK MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (Austria)

Author keywords

Apolipoprotein(a); Association study; Cardiovascular disease; Copy number variation; lipoprotein(a); Mendelian randomization

Indexed keywords

LIPOPROTEIN A; GENETIC MARKER;

AORTA VALVE STENOSIS; ARTICLE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; COPY NUMBER VARIATION; DIABETES MELLITUS; FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; GENE FREQUENCY; GENE LINKAGE DISEQUILIBRIUM; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC COUNSELING; GENETIC RISK; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HAPLOTYPE; HEART FAILURE; HUMAN; HUMAN GENETICS; MENDELIAN RANDOMIZATION ANALYSIS; NONHUMAN; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN STRUCTURE; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; GENETIC MARKER; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETICS; MEDICAL GENETICS; PROCEDURES; RISK FACTOR;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DNA COPY NUMBER VARIATIONS; GENETIC MARKERS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; GENETICS, MEDICAL; HUMANS; LIPOPROTEIN(A); RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84961112691     PISSN: 09203206     EISSN: 15737241     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10557-016-6648-3     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Kronenberg F, Utermann G. Lipoprotein(a) - resurrected by genetics. J Intern Med. 2013;273:6–30.
2. Kronenberg F, Utermann G, Dieplinger H. Lipoprotein(a) in renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 1996;27:1–25.
3. Frischmann ME, Kronenberg F, Trenkwalder E, et al. In vivo turnover study demonstrates diminished clearance of lipoprotein(a) in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int. 2007;71:1036–43.
4. Langsted A, Kamstrup PR, Nordestgaard BG. Lipoprotein(a): fasting and nonfasting levels, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk. Atherosclerosis. 2014;234:95–101.
5. Kronenberg F. Lipoprotein(a) in various conditions: to keep a sense of proportions. Atherosclerosis. 2014;234:249–51.
6. Utermann G. The mysteries of lipoprotein(a). Science. 1989;246:904–10.
7. McLean JW, Tomlinson JE, Kuang W-J, et al. cDNA sequence of human apolipoprotein(a) is homologous to plasminogen. Nature. 1987;330:132–7.
8. Koschinsky ML, Marcovina SM. Structure-function relationships in apolipoprotein(a): insights into lipoprotein(a) assembly and pathogenicity. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2004;15:167–74.
9. Bergmark C, Dewan A, Orsoni A, et al. A novel function of lipoprotein [a] as a preferential carrier of oxidized phospholipids in human plasma. J Lipid Res. 2008;49:2230–9.
10. Edelstein C, Pfaffinger D, Hinman J, et al. Lysine-phosphatidylcholine adducts in kringle V impart unique immunological and potential pro-inflammatory properties to human apolipoprotein(a). J Biol Chem. 2003;278:52841–7.
11. Tsimikas S, Witztum JL. The role of oxidized phospholipids in mediating lipoprotein(a) atherogenicity. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2008;19:369–77.
12. Tsimikas S, Brilakis ES, Miller ER, et al. Oxidized phospholipids, Lp(a) lipoprotein, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(1):46–57.
13. Kiechl S, Willeit J, Mayr M, et al. Oxidized phospholipids, lipoprotein(a), lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 activity and 10-year cardiovascular outcomes: prospective results from the Bruneck study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007;27:1788–95.
14. Lawn RM, Schwartz K, Patthy L. Convergent evolution of apolipoprotein(a) in primates and hedgehog. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94:11992–7.
15. Dieplinger H, Utermann G. The seventh myth of lipoprotein(a): where and how is it assembled? Curr Opin Lipidol. 1999;10:275–83.
16. Utermann G. Lipoprotein(a). In: Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly WS, Valle D, editors. The metabolic & molecular bases of inherited disease. Eighth edition ed. McGraw-Hill; 2000. p. 2753–87.
17. Chennamsetty I, Claudel T, Kostner KM, Trauner M, Kostner GM. FGF19 signaling cascade suppresses APOA gene expression. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2012;32:1220–7.
18. Chennamsetty I, Claudel T, Kostner KM, et al. Farnesoid X receptor represses hepatic human APOA gene expression. J Clin Invest. 2011;121:3724–34.
19. Ogorelkova M, Gruber A, Utermann G. Molecular basis of congenital Lp(a) deficiency: a frequent apo(a) ‘null’ mutation in Caucasians. Hum Mol Genet. 1999;8:2087–96.
20. Parson W, Kraft HG, Niederstatter H, et al. A common nonsense mutation in the repetitive Kringle IV-2 domain of human apolipoprotein(a) results in a truncated protein and low plasma Lp(a). Hum Mutat. 2004;24:474–80.
21. Nordestgaard BG, Chapman MJ, Ray K, et al. Lipoprotein(a) as a cardiovascular risk factor: current status. Eur Heart J. 2010;31:2844–53.
22. Lamon-Fava S, Jimenez D, Christian JC, et al. The NHLBI Twin study: heritability of apolipoprotein A-I and B, and low density lipoprotein subclasses and concordance for lipoprotein(a). Atherosclerosis. 1991;91:97–106.
23. Austin MA, Sandholzer C, Selby JV, Newman B, Krauss RM, Utermann G. Lipoprotein(a) in women twins: heritability and relationship to apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes. Am J Hum Genet. 1992;51:829–40.
24. Utermann G, Menzel HJ, Kraft HG, Duba HC, Kemmler HG, Seitz C. Lp(a) glycoprotein phenotypes: inheritance and relation to Lp(a)-lipoprotein concentrations in plasma. J Clin Invest. 1987;80:458–65.
25. Lackner C, Cohen JC, Hobbs HH. Molecular definition of the extreme size polymorphism in apolipoprotein(a). Hum Mol Genet. 1993;2:933–40.
26. Lackner C, Boerwinkle E, Leffert CC, Rahmig T, Hobbs HH. Molecular basis of apolipoprotein (a) isoform size heterogeneity as revealed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. J Clin Invest. 1991;87:2153–61.
27. Kraft HG, Köchl S, Menzel HJ, Sandholzer C, Utermann G. The apolipoprotein(a) gene: a transcribed hypervariable locus controlling plasma lipoprotein(a) concentration. Hum Genet. 1992;90:220–30.
28. Scholz M, Kraft HG, Lingenhel A, et al. Genetic control of lipoprotein(a) concentrations is different in Africans and Caucasians. Eur J Hum Genet. 1999;7:169–78.
29. Schmidt K, Kraft HG, Parson W, Utermann G. Genetics of the Lp(a)/apo(a) system in an autochthonous Black African population from the Gabon. Eur J Hum Genet. 2006;14:190–201.
30. Boerwinkle E, Leffert CC, Lin J, Lackner C, Chiesa G, Hobbs HH. Apolipoprotein(a) gene accounts for greater than 90% of the variation in plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations. J Clin Invest. 1992;90:52–60.
31. Mooser V, Scheer D, Marcovina SM, et al. The Apo(a) gene is the major determinant of variation in plasma Lp(a) levels in African Americans. Am J Hum Genet. 1997;61:402–17.
32. Trommsdorff M, Köchl S, Lingenhel A, et al. A pentanucleotide repeat polymorphism in the 5′ control region of the apolipoprotein(a) gene is associated with lipoprotein(a) plasma concentrations in Caucasians. J Clin Invest. 1995;96:150–7.
33. Mooser V, Mancini FP, Bopp S, et al. Sequence polymorphisms in the apo(a) gene associated with specific levels of Lp(a) in plasma. Hum Mol Genet. 1995;4:173–81.
34. Bopp S, Kochl S, Acquati F, et al. Ten allelic apolipoprotein[a] 5′ flanking fragments exhibit comparable promoter activities in HepG2 cells. J Lipid Res. 1995;36:1721–8.
35. Mancini FP, Mooser V, Guerra R, Hobbs HH. Sequence microheterogeneity in apolipoprotein(a) gene repeats and the relationship to plasma Lp(a) levels. Hum Mol Genet. 1995;4:1535–42.
36. Lim ET, Wurtz P, Havulinna AS, et al. Distribution and medical impact of loss-of-function variants in the Finnish founder population. PLoS Genet. 2014;10, e1004494.
37. Clarke R, Peden JF, Hopewell JC, et al. Genetic variants associated with Lp(a) lipoprotein level and coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2518–28.
38. Melzer D, Perry JR, Hernandez D, et al. A genome-wide association study identifies protein quantitative trait loci (pQTLs). PLoS Genet. 2008;4, e1000072.
39. Ober C, Nord AS, Thompson EE, et al. Genome-wide association study of plasma lipoprotein(a) levels identifies multiple genes on chromosome 6q. J Lipid Res. 2009;50:798–806.
40. Zabaneh D, Kumari M, Sandhu M, et al. Meta analysis of candidate gene variants outside the LPA locus with Lp(a) plasma levels in 14,500 participants of six White European cohorts. Atherosclerosis. 2011;217:447–51.
41. Kivimaki M, Magnussen CG, Juonala M, et al. Conventional and Mendelian randomization analyses suggest no association between lipoprotein(a) and early atherosclerosis: the Young Finns Study. Int J Epidemiol. 2011;40:470–8.
42. Qi Q, Workalemahu T, Zhang C, Hu FB, Qi L. Genetic variants, plasma lipoprotein(a) levels, and risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality among two prospective cohorts of type 2 diabetes. Eur Heart J. 2012;33:325–34.
43. Li J, Lange LA, Sabourin J, et al. Genome- and exome-wide association study of serum lipoprotein (a) in the Jackson Heart Study. J Hum Genet. 2015;60:755–61.
44. Lingenhel A, Kraft H-G, Kotze M, et al. Concentrations of the atherogenic Lp(a) are elevated in FH. Eur J Hum Genet. 1998;6:50–60.
45. Kraft HG, Lingenhel A, Raal FJ, Hohenegger M, Utermann G. Lipoprotein(a) in homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000;20:522–8.
46. Rader DJ, Mann WA, Cain W, et al. The low density lipoprotein receptor is not required for normal catabolism of Lp(a) in humans. J Clin Invest. 1995;95:1403–8.
47. Kostner GM, Gavish D, Leopold B, Bolzano K, Weintraub MS, Breslow JL. HMG CoA reductase inhibitors lower LDL cholesterol without reducing Lp(a) levels. Circulation. 1989;80:1313–9.
48. Khera AV, Everett BM, Caulfield MP, et al. Lipoprotein(a) concentrations, rosuvastatin therapy, and residual vascular risk: an analysis from the JUPITER trial (justification for the use of statins in prevention: an intervention trial evaluating rosuvastatin). Circulation. 2014;129:635–42.
49. Kronenberg F. Lipoprotein(a): there’s life in the old dog yet. Circulation. 2014;129:619–21.
50. Tate JR, Rifai N, Berg K, et al. International federation of clinical chemistry standardization project for the measurement of lipoprotein(a). Phase I. Evaluation of the analytical performance of lipoprotein(a) assay systems and commercial calibrators. Clin Chem. 1998;44:1629–40.
51. Marcovina SM, Koschinsky ML, Albers JJ, Skarlatos S. Report of the national heart, lung, and blood institute workshop on lipoprotein(a) and cardiovascular disease: recent advances and future directions. Clin Chem. 2003;49:1785–96.
52. Kronenberg F, Trenkwalder E, Dieplinger H, Utermann G. Lipoprotein(a) in stored plasma samples and the ravages of time: why epidemiological studies might fail. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1996;16:1568–72.
53. Kamstrup PR, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, Steffensen R, Nordestgaard BG. Genetically elevated lipoprotein(a) and increased risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA. 2009;301:2331–9.
54. Seed M, Hoppichler F, Reaveley D, et al. Relation of serum lipoprotein(a) concentration and apolipoprotein(a) phenotype to coronary heart disease in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1494–9.
55. Sandholzer C, Boerwinkle E, Saha N, Tong MC, Utermann G. Apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes, Lp(a) concentration and plasma lipid levels in relation to coronary heart disease in a Chinese population: evidence for the role of the apo(a) gene in coronary heart disease. J Clin Invest. 1992;89:1040–6.
56. Sandholzer C, Saha N, Kark JD, et al. Apo(a) isoforms predict risk for coronary heart disease: a study in six populations. Arterioscler Thromb. 1992;12:1214–26.
57. Smith GD, Ebrahim S. Mendelian randomization: can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease? Int J Epidemiol. 2003;32:1–22.
58. Kraft HG, Lingenhel A, Köchl S, et al. Apolipoprotein(a) Kringle IV repeat number predicts risk for coronary heart disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1996;16:713–9.
59. Erqou S, Thompson A, Di AE, et al. Apolipoprotein(a) isoforms and the risk of vascular disease: systematic review of 40 studies involving 58,000 participants. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:2160–7.
60. Li Y, Luke MM, Shiffman D, Devlin JJ. Genetic variants in the apolipoprotein(a) gene and coronary heart disease. Circ Cardiovasc Genet. 2011;4:565–73.
61. Schunkert H, Konig IR, Kathiresan S, et al. Large-scale association analysis identifies 13 new susceptibility loci for coronary artery disease. Nat Genet. 2011;43:333–8.
62. Kronenberg F. Genetic determination of lipoprotein(a) and its association with cardiovascular disease. Convenient does not always mean better. J Intern Med. 2014;276:243–7.
63. Khalifa M, Noureen A, Ertelthalner K, et al. Lack of association of rs3798220 with small apolipoprotein(a) isoforms and high lipoprotein(a) levels in East and Southeast Asians. Atherosclerosis. 2015;242:521–8.
64. Takeuchi F, Yokota M, Yamamoto K, et al. Genome-wide association study of coronary artery disease in the Japanese. Eur J Hum Genet. 2012;20:333–40.
65. Qin S, Wang S, Li C. Apolipoprotein (a) polymorphism in relation to coronary heart disease in Chinese Han nationality. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi. 1995;75:588–91.
66. Trégouët DA, Konig IR, Erdmann J, et al. Genome-wide haplotype association study identifies the SLC22A3-LPAL2-LPA gene cluster as a risk locus for coronary artery disease. Nat Genet. 2009;41:283–5.
67. Tate JR, Berg K, Couderc R, et al. International federation of clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine (IFCC) standardization project for the measurement of lipoprotein(a). Phase 2: selection and properties of a proposed secondary reference material for lipoprotein(a). Clin Chem Lab Med. 1999;37:949–58.
68. Marcovina SM, Albers JJ, Scanu AM, et al. Use of a reference material proposed by the international federation of clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine to evaluate analytical methods for the determination of plasma lipoprotein(a). Clin Chem. 2000;46:1956–67.
69. Langsted A, Varbo A, Kamstrup PR, Nordestgaard BG. Elevated lipoprotein(a) does not cause low-grade inflammation despite causal association with aortic valve stenosis and myocardial infarction: a study of 100,578 individuals from the general population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100:2690–9.
70. Kronenberg F, Neyer U, Lhotta K, et al. The low molecular weight apo(a) phenotype is an independent predictor for coronary artery disease in hemodialysis patients: a prospective follow-up. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999;10:1027–36.
71. Kronenberg F, König P, Neyer U, et al. Multicenter study of lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes in patients with end-stage renal disease treated by hemodialysis or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1995;6:110–20.
72. Longenecker JC, Klag MJ, Marcovina SM, et al. Small apolipoprotein(a) size predicts mortality in end-stage renal disease: the choice study. Circulation. 2002;106:2812–8.
73. Longenecker JC, Klag MJ, Marcovina SM, et al. High lipoprotein(a) levels and small apolipoprotein(a) size prospectively predict cardiovascular events in dialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:1794–802.
74. Ooi EM, Watts GF, Chan DC, et al. Effects of extended-release niacin on the postprandial metabolism of Lp(a) and ApoB-100-containing lipoproteins in statin-treated men with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2015;35:2686–93.
75. Croyal M, Ouguerram K, Passard M, et al. Effects of extended-release nicotinic acid on apolipoprotein (a) kinetics in hypertriglyceridemic patients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2015;35:2042–7.
76. Boden WE, Probstfield JL, Anderson T, et al. Niacin in patients with low HDL cholesterol levels receiving intensive statin therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:2255–67.
77. Landray MJ, Haynes R, Hopewell JC, et al. Effects of extended-release niacin with laropiprant in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:203–12.
78. Ray KK, Vallejo-Vaz AJ. The evolving role of CETP inhibition: beyond HDL cholesterol. Lancet. 2015;386:412–4.
79. Raal FJ, Santos RD, Blom DJ, et al. Mipomersen, an apolipoprotein B synthesis inhibitor, for lowering of LDL cholesterol concentrations in patients with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2010;375:998–1006.
80. Santos RD, Raal FJ, Catapano AL, Witztum JL, Steinhagen-Thiessen E, Tsimikas S. Mipomersen, an antisense oligonucleotide to apolipoprotein B-100, reduces lipoprotein(a) in various populations with hypercholesterolemia: results of 4 phase III trials. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2015;35:689–99.
81. Tsimikas S, Viney NJ, Hughes SG, et al. Antisense therapy targeting apolipoprotein(a): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 1 study. Lancet. 2015;386:1472–83.
82. Ladenson PW, Kristensen JD, Ridgway EC, et al. Use of the thyroid hormone analogue eprotirome in statin-treated dyslipidemia. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:906–16.
83. Samaha FF, McKenney J, Bloedon LT, Sasiela WJ, Rader DJ. Inhibition of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein alone or with ezetimibe in patients with moderate hypercholesterolemia. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med. 2008;5:497–505.
84. Navarese EP, Kolodziejczak M, Schulze V, et al. Effects of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 antibodies in adults with hypercholesterolemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163:40–51.
85. Raal FJ, Giugliano RP, Sabatine MS, et al. Reduction in lipoprotein(a) with PCSK9 monoclonal antibody evolocumab (AMG 145): a pooled analysis of more than 1,300 patients in 4 phase II trials. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:1278–88.
86. Desai NR, Kohli P, Giugliano RP, et al. AMG145, a monoclonal antibody against proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9, significantly reduces lipoprotein(a) in hypercholesterolemic patients receiving statin therapy: an analysis from the LDL-C assessment with proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9 monoclonal antibody inhibition combined with statin therapy (LAPLACE)-thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) 57 trial. Circulation. 2013;128:962–9.
87. Sabatine MS, Giugliano RP, Wiviott SD, et al. Efficacy and safety of evolocumab in reducing lipids and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:1500–9.
88. Robinson JG, Farnier M, Krempf M, et al. Efficacy and safety of alirocumab in reducing lipids and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:1489–99.
89. Jaeger BR, Richter Y, Nagel D, et al. Longitudinal cohort study on the effectiveness of lipid apheresis treatment to reduce high lipoprotein(a) levels and prevent major adverse coronary events. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med. 2009;6:229–39.
90. Leebmann J, Roseler E, Julius U, et al. Lipoprotein apheresis in patients with maximally tolerated lipid lowering therapy, Lp(a)-hyperlipoproteinemia and progressive cardiovascular disease: prospective observational multicenter study. Circulation. 2013;128:2567–76.
91. Safarova MS, Ezhov MV, Afanasieva OI, et al. Effect of specific lipoprotein(a) apheresis on coronary atherosclerosis regression assessed by quantitative coronary angiography. Atheroscler Suppl. 2013;14:93–9.
92. Thanassoulis G, Campbell CY, Owens DS, et al. Genetic associations with valvular calcification and aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:503–12.
93. Kamstrup PR, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, Nordestgaard BG. Elevated lipoprotein(a) and risk of aortic valve stenosis in the general population. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:470–7.
94. Arsenault BJ, Boekholdt SM, Dube MP, et al. Lipoprotein(a) levels, genotype, and incident aortic valve stenosis: a prospective mendelian randomization study and replication in a case–control cohort. Circ Cardiovasc Genet. 2014;7:304–10.
95. Vongpromek R, Bos S, Ten Kate GJ, et al. Lipoprotein(a) levels are associated with aortic valve calcification in asymptomatic patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia. J Intern Med. 2015;278:166–73.
96. Capoulade R, Chan KL, Yeang C, et al. Oxidized phospholipids, lipoprotein(a), and progression of calcific aortic valve stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66:1236–46.
97. Bouchareb R, Mahmut A, Nsaibia MJ, et al. Autotaxin derived from lipoprotein(a) and valve interstitial cells promotes inflammation and mineralization of the aortic valve. Circulation. 2015;132:677–90.
98. Kamstrup PR, Nordestgaard BG. Elevated Lipoprotein(a) Levels, LPA risk genotypes, and increased risk of heart failure in the general population. JACC Heart Fail. In press 2015.
99. Kamstrup PR, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, Nordestgaard BG. Genetic evidence that lipoprotein(a) associates with atherosclerotic stenosis rather than venous thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2012;32:1732–41.
100. Helgadottir A, Gretarsdottir S, Thorleifsson G, et al. Apolipoprotein(a) genetic sequence variants associated with systemic atherosclerosis and coronary atherosclerotic burden but not with venous thromboembolism. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60:722–9.
101. Young G, Albisetti M, Bonduel M, et al. Impact of inherited thrombophilia on venous thromboembolism in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Circulation. 2008;118:1373–82.
102. Mora S, Kamstrup PR, Rifai N, Nordestgaard BG, Buring JE, Ridker PM. Lipoprotein(a) and risk of type 2 diabetes. Clin Chem. 2010;56:1252–60.
103. Kamstrup PR, Nordestgaard BG. Lipoprotein(a) concentrations, isoform size, and risk of type 2 diabetes: a Mendelian randomisation study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2013;1:220–7.
104. Ye Z, Haycock PC, Gurdasani D, et al. The association between circulating lipoprotein(a) and type 2 diabetes: is it causal? Diabetes. 2014;63:332–42.
105. Ding L, Song A, Dai M, et al. Serum lipoprotein (a) concentrations are inversely associated with T2D, prediabetes, and insulin resistance in a middle-aged and elderly Chinese population. J Lipid Res. 2015;56:920–6.
106. Lamina C, Kronenberg F. The mysterious lipoprotein(a) is still good for a surprise. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinology. 2013;1:170–2.
107. Laschkolnig A, Kollerits B, Lamina C, et al. Lipoprotein(a) concentrations, apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes and peripheral arterial disease in three independent cohorts. Cardiovasc Res. 2014;103:28–36.