The waste disposal problem of effortful control

Motivation and Cognitive Control

Volumn , Issue , 2015, Pages 235-260

  Holroyd, Clay B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84956707856     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9781315656878     Document Type: Chapter

References (183)

1. Akam, T., & Kullmann, D. M. (2014). Oscillatory multiplexing of population codes for selective communication in the mammalian brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15, 111-122. doi:10.1038/nrn3668
2. Anderson, K. L., Rajagovindan, R., Ghacibeh, G. A., Meador, K. J., & Ding, M. (2010). Theta oscillations mediate interaction between prefrontal cortex and medial temporal lobe in human memory. Cerebral Cortex, 20, 1604-1612. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp223
3. Asada, H., Fukuda, Y., Tsunoda, S., Yamaguchi, M., & Tonoike, M. (1999). Frontal midline theta rhythms refl ect alternative activation of prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex in humans. Neuroscience Letters, 274, 29-32. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(99) 00679-5
4. Aston-Jones, G., & Bloom, F. E. (1981a). Activity of norepinephrine-containing locus coeruleus neurons in behaving rats anticipates fl uctuations in the sleep-waking cycle. The Journal of Neuroscience, 1, 876-886. Retrieved from http://www.jneurosci.org/
5. Aston-Jones, G., & Bloom, F. E. (1981b). Nonrepinephrine-containing locus coeruleus neurons in behaving rats exhibit pronounced responses to non-noxious environmental stimuli. The Journal of Neuroscience, 1, 887-900. Retrieved from http://www.jneurosci. org/
6. Aston-Jones, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2005). Adaptive gain and the role of the locus coeruleus- norepinephrine system in optimal performance. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 493, 99-110. doi:10.1002/cne.20723
7. Bari, A., & Aston-Jones, G. (2013). Atomoxetine modulates spontaneous and sensoryevoked discharge of locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurons. Neuropharmacology, 64, 53-64. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.07.020
8. Bateman, R. J., Munsell, L. Y., Morris, J. C., Swarm, R., Yarasheski, K. E., & Holtzman, D. M. (2006). Human amyloid-β synthesis and clearance rates as measured in cerebrospinal fl uid in vivo. Nature Medicine, 12, 856-861. doi:10.1038/nm1438
9. Bateman, R. J., Wen, G., Morris, J. C., & Holtzman, D. M. (2007). Fluctuations of CSF amyloid-β levels: Implications for a diagnostic and therapeutic biomarker. Neurology, 68, 666-669. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000256043.50901.e3
10. Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252-1265. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252
11. Baumeister, R. F., & Heatherton, T. F. (1996). Self-regulation failure: An overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7, 1-15. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0701_1
12. Beedie, C. J., & Lane, A. M. (2012). The role of glucose in self-control: Another look at the evidence and an alternative conceptualization. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16, 143-153. doi:10.1177/1088868311419817
13. Bekar, L. K., Wei, H. S., & Nedergaard, M. (2012). The locus coeruleus-norepinephrine network optimizes coupling of cerebral blood volume with oxygen demand. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, 32, 2135-2145. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2012.115
14. Benchenane, K., Peyrache, A., Khamassi, M., Tierney, P. L., Gioanni, Y., Battaglia, F. P., & Wiener, S. I. (2010). Coherent theta oscillations and reorganization of spike timing in the hippocampal-prefrontal network upon learning. Neuron, 66, 921-936. doi:10.1016/j. neuron.2010.05.013
15. Bero, A. W., Yan, P., Roh, J. H., Cirrito, J. R., Stewart, F. R., Raichle, M. E., . Holtzman, D. M. (2011). Neuronal activity regulates the regional vulnerability to amyloid-β deposition. Nature Neuroscience, 14, 750-756. doi:10.1038/nn.2801
16. Berridge, C. W., & Foote, S. L. (1994). Locus coeruleus-induced modulation of forebrain electroencephalographic (EEG) state in halothane-anesthetized rat. Brain Research Bulletin, 35, 597-605. doi:10.1016/0361-9230(94)90174-0
17. Boksem, M. A., Meijman, T. F., & Lorist, M. M. (2006). Mental fatigue, motivation and action monitoring. Biological Psychology, 72, 123-132. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.08.007
18. Bouret, S., & Sara, S. J. (2005). Network reset: A simplifi ed overarching theory of locus coeruleus noradrenaline function. Trends in Neurosciences, 28, 574-582. doi:10.1016/j. tins.2005.09.002
19. Boyle, P. J., Scott, J. C., Krentz, A. J., Nagy, R. J., Comstock, E., & Hoffman, C. (1994). Diminished brain glucose metabolism is a signifi cant determinant for falling rates of systemic glucose utilization during sleep in normal humans. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 93, 529-535. doi:10.1172/JCI117003
20. Brown, R. A., Walling, S. G., Milway, J. S., & Harley, C. W. (2005). Locus ceruleus activation suppresses feedforward interneurons and reduces β-? electroencephalogram frequencies while it enhances ? frequencies in rat dentate gyrus. The Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 1985-1991. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4307-04.2005
21. Buckner, R. L., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2008). The brain's default network. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124, 1-38. doi:10.1196/annals.1440.011
22. Buckner, R. L., Sepulcre, J., Talukdar, T., Krienen, F. M., Liu, H., Hedden, T., . Johnson, K. A. (2009). Cortical hubs revealed by intrinsic functional connectivity: Mapping, assessment of stability, and relation to Alzheimer's disease. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 1860-1873. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5062-08.2009
23. Canolty, R. T., & Knight, R. T. (2010). The functional role of cross-frequency coupling. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 506-515. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.001
24. Carter, E. C., & McCullough, M. E. (2013). Is ego depletion too incredible? Evidence for the overestimation of the depletion effect. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36, 683-684. doi:10.1017/S0140525X13000952
25. Carter, M. E., Yizhar, O., Chikahisa, S., Nguyen, H., Adamantidis, A., Nishino, S., . de Lecea, L. (2010). Tuning arousal with optogenetic modulation of locus coeruleus neurons. Nature Neuroscience, 13, 1526-1533. doi:10.1038/nn.2682
26. Cirelli, C., Pompeiano, M., & Tononi, G. (1996). Neuronal gene expression in the waking state: A role for the locus coeruleus. Science, 274, 1211-1215. doi:10.1126/ science.274.5290.1211
27. Cirelli, C., & Tononi, G. (2000). Differential expression of plasticity-related genes in waking and sleep and their regulation by the noradrenergic system. The Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 9187-9194. Retrieved from http://www.jneurosci.org/
28. Cirrito, J. R., Kang, J. E., Lee, J., Stewart, F. R., Verges, D. K., Silverio, L. M., . Holtzman, D. M. (2008). Endocytosis is required for synaptic activity-dependent release of amyloid-β in vivo. Neuron, 58, 42-51. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.02.003
29. Cirrito, J. R., May, P. C., O'Dell, M. A., Taylor, J. W., Parsadanian, M., Cramer, J. W., . Holtzman, D. M. (2003). In vivo assessment of brain interstitial fl uid with microdialysis reveals plaque-associated changes in amyloid-β metabolism and half-life. The Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 8844-8853. Retrieved from http://www.jneurosci.org/
30. Cirrito, J. R., Yamada, K. A., Finn, M. B., Sloviter, R. S., Bales, K. R., May, P. C., . Holtzman, D. M. (2005). Synaptic activity regulates interstitial fl uid amyloid-β levels in vivo. Neuron, 48, 913-922. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.10.028
31. Cohen, J. D., Dunbar, K., & McClelland, J. L. (1990). On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing account of the Stroop effect. Psychological Review, 97, 332-361. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.97.3.332
32. Cohen, J. D., Perlstein, W. M., Braver, T. S., Nystrom, L. E., Noll, D. C., Jonides, J., & Smith, E. E. (1997). Temporal dynamics of brain activation during a working memory task. Nature, 386, 604-608. doi:10.1038/386604a0
33. Cohen, M. X. (2011). Error-related medial frontal theta activity predicts cingulate-related structural connectivity. NeuroImage, 55, 1373-1383. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage. 2010.12.072
34. Cohen, M. X., Ridderinkhof, K. R., Haupt, S., Elger, C. E., & Fell, J. (2008). Medial frontal cortex and response confl ict: Evidence from human intracranial EEG and medial frontal cortex lesion. Brain Research, 1238, 127-142. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.114
35. Constantinople, C. M., & Bruno, R. M. (2011). Effects and mechanisms of wakefulness on local cortical networks. Neuron, 69, 1061-1068. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.02.040
36. Daitch, A. L., Sharma, M., Roland, J. L., Astafi ev, S. V., Bundy, D. T., Gaona, C. M., . Corbetta, M. (2013). Frequency-specifi c mechanism links human brain networks for spatial attention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110, 19585-19590. doi:10.1073/pnas.1307947110
37. Dayan, P., & Yu, A. J. (2006). Phasic norepinephrine: A neural interrupt signal for unexpected events. Network: Computation in Neural Systems, 17, 335-350. doi:10.1080/ 09548980601004024
38. Delagrange, P., Canu, M. H., Rougeul, A., Buser, P., & Bouyer, J. J. (1993). Effects of locus coeruleus lesions on vigilance and attentive behaviour in cat. Behavioural Brain Research, 53, 155-165. doi:10.1016/S0166-4328(05)80275-X
39. Donner, T. H., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2013). Brain-wide gain modulation: The rich get richer. Nature Neuroscience, 16, 989-990. doi:10.1038/nn.3471
40. Dreisbach, G., & Fischer, R. (2012). Confl icts as aversive signals. Brain and Cognition, 78, 94-98. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.12.003
41. Dzirasa, K., Phillips, H. W., Sotnikova, T. D., Salahpour, A., Kumar, S., Gainetdinov, R. R., . Nicolelis, M. A. (2010). Noradrenergic control of cortico-striato-thalamic and mesolimbic cross-structural synchrony. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 6387-6397. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0764-10.2010
42. Eldar, E., Cohen, J. D., & Niv, Y. (2013). The effects of neural gain on attention and learning. Nature Neuroscience, 16, 1146-1153. doi:10.1038/nn.3428
43. Engel, A. K., Fries, P., & Singer, W. (2001). Dynamic predictions: Oscillations and synchrony in top-down processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 704-716. doi:10.1038/35094565
44. Eschenko, O., Magri, C., Panzeri, S., & Sara, S. J. (2012). Noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus are phase locked to cortical up-down states during sleep. Cerebral Cortex, 22, 426-435. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr121
45. Feenstra, B.W.A., & Holsheimer, J. (1979). Dipole-like neuronal sources of theta rhythm in dorsal hippocampus, dendate gyrus and cingulate cortex of the urethane-anesthetized rat. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 47, 532-538. doi:10.1016/ 0013-4694(79)90254-2
46. Fox, P. T., Raichle, M. E., Mintun, M. A., & Dence, C. (1988). Nonoxidative glucose consumption during focal physiologic neural activity. Science, 241, 462-464. doi:10.1126/ science.3260686
47. Fries, P. (2005). A mechanism for cognitive dynamics: Neuronal communication through neuronal coherence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 474-480. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005. 08.011
48. Gailliot, M. T., & Baumeister, R. F. (2007). The physiology of willpower: Linking blood glucose to self-control. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 303-327. doi:10.1177/1088868307303030
49. Gailliot, M. T., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Maner, J. K., Plant, E. A., Tice, D. M., . Schmeichel, B. J. (2007). Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 325-336. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.325
50. Gehring, W. J., Liu, Y., Orr, J. M., & Carp, J. (2012). The error-related negativity (ERN/ Ne). In S. J. Luck & E. S. Kappenman (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of event-related potential components (pp. 231-291). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
51. Gevins, A., Smith, M. E., McEvoy, L., & Yu, D. (1997). High-resolution EEG mapping of cortical activation related to working memory: Effects of task diffi culty, type of processing, and practice. Cerebral Cortex, 7, 374-385. doi:10.1093/cercor/7.4.374
52. Gilestro, G. F., Tononi, G., & Cirelli, C. (2009). Widespread changes in synaptic markers as a function of sleep and wakefulness in Drosophila. Science, 324, 109-112. doi:10.1126/ science.1166673
53. Gompf, H. S., Mathai, C., Fuller, P. M., Wood, D. A., Pedersen, N. P., Saper, C. B., & Lu, J. (2010). Locus ceruleus and anterior cingulate cortex sustain wakefulness in a novel environment. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 14543-14551. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3037-10.2010
54. Griesmayr, B., Gruber, W. R., Klimesch, W., & Sauseng, P. (2010). Human frontal midline theta and its synchronization to gamma during a verbal delayed match to sample task. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 93, 208-215. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2009.09.013
55. Haass, C., & Selkoe, D. J. (2007). Soluble protein oligomers in neurodegeneration: Lessons from the Alzheimer's amyloid-β peptide. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 8, 101-112. doi:10.1038/nrm2101
56. Hagger, M. S., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. (2014). It is premature to regard the ego-depletion effect as "too incredible." Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 298. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00298
57. Hagger, M. S., Wood, C., Stiff, C., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. (2010). Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 495-525. doi:10.1037/a0019486
58. Harley, C. W. (2004). Norepinephrine and dopamine as learning signals. Neural Plasticity, 11, 191-204. doi:10.1155/NP.2004.191 Hasselmo, M. E. (2012). How we remember. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
59. Hasselmo, M. E. (2012). How we remember. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
60. Hedden, T., Van Dijk, K. R., Becker, J. A., Mehta, A., Sperling, R. A., Johnson, K. A., & Buckner, R. L. (2009). Disruption of functional connectivity in clinically normal older adults harboring amyloid burden. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 12686-12694. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3189-09.2009
61. Hohenemser, C., Kasperson, R., & Kates, R. (1977). The distrust of nuclear power. Science, 196, 25-34. doi:10.1126/science.841337
62. Holroyd, C. B. (2013). Theories of anterior cingulate cortex function: Opportunity cost. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36, 693-694. doi:10.1017/S0140525X13001052
63. Holroyd, C. B., & McClure, S. M. (2015). Hierarchical control over effortful behavior by rodent medial frontal cortex: A computational model. Psychological Review, 122, 54-83. doi:10.1037/a0038339
64. Holroyd, C. B., & Yeung, N. (2011). An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function: Option selection in hierarchical reinforcement learning. In R. B. Mars, J. Sallet, M.F.S. Rushworth, & N. Yeung (Eds.), Neural basis of motivational and cognitive control (pp. 333-349). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
65. Holroyd, C. B., & Yeung, N. (2012). Motivation of extended behaviors by anterior cingulate cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 122-128. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.12.008
66. Holsheimer, J. (1982). Generation of theta activity (RSA) in the cingulate cortex of the rat. Experimental Brain Research, 47, 309-312. doi:10.1007/BF00239391
67. Horn, A., Ostwald, D., Reisert, M., & Blankenburg, F. (2013). The structural-functional connectome and the default mode network of the human brain. NeuroImage, 67, 735-748. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.09.069
68. Howells, F. M., Stein, D. J., & Russell, V. A. (2010). Perceived mental effort correlates with changes in tonic arousal during attentional tasks. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 6, 39. Retrieved from http://www.behavioralandbrainfunctions.com
69. Hsieh, L. T., & Ranganath, C. (2014). Frontal midline theta oscillations during working memory maintenance and episodic encoding and retrieval. NeuroImage, 85, 721-729. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.08.003
70. Huang, Y., Potter, R., Sigurdson, W., Santacruz, A., Shih, S., Ju, Y. E., . Bateman, R. J. (2012). Effects of age and amyloid deposition on Aβ dynamics in the human central nervous system. Archives of Neurology, 69, 51-58. doi:10.1001/archneurol.2011.235
71. Hurko, O., Boudonck, K., Gonzales, C., Hughes, Z. A., Jacobsen, J. S., Reinhart, P. H., & Crowther, D. (2010). Ablation of the locus coeruleus increases oxidative stress in Tg-2576 transgenic mice but not wild-type mice. International Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2010, 864625. doi:10.4061/2010/864625
72. Iliff, J. J., Lee, H., Yu, M., Feng, T., Logan, J., Nedergaard, M., & Benveniste, H. (2013). Brain-wide pathway for waste clearance captured by contrast-enhanced MRI. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 123, 1299-1309. doi:10.1172/JCI67677.
73. Iliff, J. J., Wang, M., Liao, Y., Plogg, B. A., Peng, W., Gundersen, G. A., . Nedergaard, M. (2012). A paravascular pathway facilitates CSF fl ow through the brain parenchyma and the clearance of interstitial solutes, including amyloid β. Science Translational Medicine, 4, 147ra111. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3003748
74. Ingiosi, A. M., Opp, M. R., & Krueger, J. M. (2013). Sleep and immune function: Glial contributions and consequences of aging. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23, 806-811. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2013.02.003
75. Inzlicht, M., & Gutsell, J. N. (2007). Running on empty: Neural signals for self-control failure. Psychological Science, 18, 933-937. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02004.x
76. Inzlicht, M., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2012). What is ego depletion? Toward a mechanistic revision of the resource model of self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 450-463. doi:10.1177/1745691612454134
77. Inzlicht, M., Schmeichel, B. J., & Macrae, C. N. (2014). Why self-control seems (but may not be) limited. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 127-133. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013. 12.009
78. Ishihara, T., & Yoshii, N. (1972). Multivariate analytic study of EEG and mental activity in juvenile delinquents. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 33, 71-80. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(72)90026-0
79. Ishii, R., Shinosaki, K., Ukai, S., Inouye, T., Ishihara, T., Yoshimine, T., . Takeda, M. (1999). Medial prefrontal cortex generates frontal midline theta rhythm. NeuroReport, 10, 675-679. Retrieved from http://journals.lww.com/neuroreport
80. Jones, M. W., & Wilson, M. A. (2005). Theta rhythms coordinate hippocampal-prefrontal interactions in a spatial memory task. PLoS Biology, 3, e402. doi:10.1371/journal. pbio.0030402
81. Kalauzi, A., Kesic, S., & Saponjic, J. (2009). Cortico-pontine theta synchronization phase shift following monoaminergic lesion in rat. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 60, 79-84. Retrieved from http://www.jpp.krakow.pl/
82. Kamenetz, F., Tomita, T., Hsieh, H., Seabrook, G., Borchelt, D., Iwatsubo, T., . Malinow, R. (2003). APP processing and synaptic function. Neuron, 37, 925-937. doi:10.1016/ S0896-6273(03)00124-7
83. Kang, J. E., Lim, M. M., Bateman, R. J., Lee, J. J., Smyth, L. P., Cirrito, J. R., . Holtzman, D. M. (2009). Amyloid-β dynamics are regulated by orexin and the sleep-wake cycle. Science, 326, 1005-1007. doi:10.1126/science.1180962
84. King, D. (1997). Kasparov v. Deeper Blue. London, Batsford.
85. Kitzbichler, M. G., Henson, R. N., Smith, M. L., Nathan, P. J., & Bullmore, E. T. (2011). Cognitive effort drives workspace confi guration of human brain functional networks. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 8259-8270. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0440-11.2011
86. Klimesch, W., Freunberger, R., Sauseng, P., & Gruber, W. (2008). A short review of slow phase synchronization and memory: Evidence for control processes in different memory systems? Brain Research, 1235, 31-44. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.06.049
87. Kool, W., McGuire, J. T., Rosen, Z. B., & Botvinick, M. M. (2010). Decision making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139, 665-682. doi:10.1037/a0020198
88. Kool, W., McGuire, J. T., Wang, G. J., & Botvinick, M. M. (2013). Neural and behavioral evidence for an intrinsic cost of self-control. PLoS ONE, 8, e72626. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0072626
89. Kornhuber, A. W., Lang, M., Kure, W., & Kornhuber, H. H. (1990). Will and frontal theta activity. In C.H.M. Brunia, A.W.K. Gaillard, & A. Kok (Eds.), Physiological brain research (Vol. 1, pp. 55-58). Tilburg, Germany: Tilburg University Press.
90. Kuchibhotla, K. V., Goldman, S. T., Lattarulo, C. R., Wu, H. Y., Hyman, B. T., & Bacskai, B. J. (2008). Aβ plaques lead to aberrant regulation of calcium homeostasis in vivo resulting in structural and functional disruption of neuronal networks. Neuron, 59, 214-225. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.06.008
91. Kurniawan, I. T., Seymour, B., Talmi, D., Yoshida, W., Chater, N., & Dolan, R. J. (2010). Choosing to make an effort: The role of striatum in signaling physical effort of a chosen action. Journal of Neurophysiology, 104, 313-321. doi:10.1152/jn.00027.2010
92. Kurzban, R. (2010). Does the brain consume additional glucose during self-control tasks? Evolutionary Psychology, 8, 244-259. Retrieved from http://www.epjournal.net/
93. Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A., Kable, J. W., & Myers, J. (2013). An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36, 661-679. doi:10.1017/S0140525X12003196
94. Lng, M., Lang, W., Diekmann, V., & Kornhuber, H. H. (1987). The frontal theta rhythm indicating motor and cognitive learning. In R. Johnson, J. W. Rohrbaugh, & R. Parasuraman (Eds.), Supplements to electroenphalography and clinical neurophysiology: Vol. 40. Current trends in event-related potential research (pp. 322-327). Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland.
95. Lang, W., Lang, M., Kornhuber, A., Diekmann, V., & Kornhuber, H. H. (1988). Eventrelated EEG-spectra in a concept formation task. Human Neurobiology, 6, 295-301. Retrieved from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/3350710
96. Laughlin, S., de Ruyter van Steveninck, R. R., & Anderson, J. C. (1998). The metabolic cost of neural information. Nature Neuroscience, 1, 36-41.
97. Laughlin, S. B., & Sejnowski, T. J. (2003). Communication in neuronal networks. Science, 301, 1870-1874. doi:10.1126/science.1089662
98. Libedinsky, C., Massar, S.A.A., Ling, A., Chee, W., Huettel, S. A., & Chee, M.W.L. (2013). Sleep deprivation alters effort discounting but not delay discounting of monetary rewards. Sleep, 36, 899-904. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5665/sleep.2720
99. Likhtik, E., Stujenske, J. M., Topiwala, M. A., Harris, A. Z., & Gordon, J. A. (2014). Prefrontal entrainment of amygdala activity signals safety in learned fear and innate anxiety. Nature Neuroscience, 17, 106-113. doi:10.1038/nn.3582
100. Lisman, J. E., & Jensen, O. (2013). The theta-gamma neural code. Neuron, 77, 1002-1016. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.03.007
101. Lorist, M. M., Boksem, M. A., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2005). Impaired cognitive control and reduced cingulate activity during mental fatigue. Cognitive Brain Research, 24, 199-205. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.018
102. Luu, P., & Tucker, D. M. (2001). Regulating action: Alternating activation of midline frontal and motor cortical networks. Clinical Neurophysiology, 112, 1295-1306. doi:10.1016/ S1388-2457(01)00559-4
103. Madsen, P. L., Hasselbalch, S. G., Hagemann, L. P., Olsen, K. S., Bülow, J., Holm, S., . Lassen, N. A. (1995). Persistent resetting of the cerebral oxygen/glucose uptake ratio by brain activation: Evidence obtained with the Kety-Schmidt technique. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 15, 485-491. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1995.60
104. Marcora, S. M., Staiano, W., & Manning, V. (2009). Mental fatigue impairs physical performance in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 106, 857-864. doi:10.1152/ japplphysiol.91324.2008
105. Masicampo, E. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2008). Toward a physiology of dual-process reasoning and judgment: Lemonade, willpower, and expensive rule-based analysis. Psychological Science, 19, 255-260. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02077.x
106. Mawuenyega, K. G., Sigurdson, W., Ovod, V., Munsell, L., Kasten, T., Morris, J. C., . Bateman, R. J. (2010). Decreased clearance of CNS β-amyloid in Alzheimer's disease. Science, 330, 1774. doi:10.1126/science.1197623
107. Mednick, S. C., Nakayama, K., Cantero, J. L., Atienza, M., Levin, A. A., Pathak, N., & Stickgold, R. (2002). The restorative effect of naps on perceptual deterioration. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 677-681. doi:10.1038/nn864
108. Meyer-Luehmann, M., Spires-Jones, T. L., Prada, C., Garcia-Alloza, M., de Calignon, A., Rozkalne, A., . Hyman, B. T. (2008). Rapid appearance and local toxicity of amyloid- β plaques in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Nature, 451, 720-724. doi:10.1038/ nature06616
109. Miller, R. (1991). Studies in brain function: Vol. 17. Cortico-hippocampal interplay. New York: Springer-Verlag.
110. Minzenberg, M. J., Yoon, J. H., & Carter, C. S. (2011). Modafi nil modulation of the default mode network. Psychopharmacology, 215, 23-31. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2111-5
111. Mitchell, D. J., McNaughton, N., Flanagan, D., & Kirk, I. J. (2008). Frontal-midline theta from the perspective of hippocampal "theta." Progress in Neurobiology, 86, 156-185. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.005
112. Mizuhara, H., & Yamaguchi, Y. (2007). Human cortical circuits for central executive function emerge by theta phase synchronization. NeuroImage, 36, 232-244. doi:10.1016/j. neuroimage.2007.02.026
113. Mizuki, Y., Tanaka, M., Isozaki, H., Nishijima, H., & Inanaga, K. (1980). Periodic appearance of theta rhythm in the frontal midline area during performance of a mental task. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 49, 345-351. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(80) 90229-1
114. Molden, D. C., Hui, C. M., Scholer, A. A., Meier, B. P., Noreen, E. E., D'Agostino, P. R., & Martin, V. (2012). Motivational versus metabolic effects of carbohydrates on selfcontrol. Psychological Science, 23, 1137-1144. doi:10.1177/0956797612439069
115. Mucke, L. & Selkoe, D. J. (2012). Neurotoxicity of amyloid β-protein: Synaptic and network dysfunction. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 2, a006338. doi:10.1101/ cshperspect.a006338
116. Muraven, M., & Slessareva, E. (2003). Mechanisms of self-control failure: Motivation and limited resources. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 894-906. doi:10.1177/ 0146167203029007008
117. Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-control as a limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 774-789. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.774
118. Nakagawa, Y. (1988). Continuous observations of daytime EEG patterns in normal subjects under restrained conditions while sitting in armchair or on stool. Part 2. Awake state. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 42, 247-264. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.1988. tb01976.x
119. Navon, D. (1984). Resources-a theoretical soup stone? Psychological Review, 91, 216-234. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.91.2.216
120. Newborn, M. (2003). Deep Blue: An artificial intelligence milestone. New York: Springer-Verlag.
121. Nigbur, R., Ivanova, G., & Stürmer, B. (2011). Theta power as a marker for cognitive interference. Clinical Neurophysiology, 122, 2185-2194. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2011.03.030
122. Nitsch, R. M., Farber, S. A., Growdon, J. H., & Wurtman, R. J. (1993). Release of amyloid β-protein precursor derivatives by electrical depolarization of rat hippocampal slices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 90, 5191-5193. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org
123. Norman, D. A., & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action. In G. E. Schwartz, R. J. Davidson, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self regulation (pp. 1-18). New York: Plenum Press.
124. O'Donnell, J., Zeppenfeld, D., McConnell, E., Pena, S., & Nedergaard, M. (2012). Norepinephrine: A neuromodulator that boosts the function of multiple cell types to optimize CNS performance. Neurochemical Research, 37, 2496-2512. doi:10.1007/s11064- 012-0818-x
125. Onton, J., Delorme, A., & Makeig, S. (2005). Frontal midline EEG dynamics during working memory. NeuroImage, 27, 341-356. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.04.014
126. Ooms, S., Overeem, S., Besse, K., Rikkert, M. O., Verbeek, M., & Classen, J.A.H.R. (2014). Effect of 1 night of total sleep deprivation on cerebrospinal fl uid β-Amyloid 42 in healthy middle-aged men: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association Neurology, 71 (8), 971-977. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2014.1173
127. Pageaux, B., Marcora, S. M., & Lepers, R. (2013). Prolonged mental exertion does not alter neuromuscular function of the knee extensors. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 45, 2254-2264. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e31829b504a
128. Parvizi, J., Rangarajan, V., Shirer, W. R., Desai, N., & Greicius, M. D. (2013). The will to persevere induced by electrical stimulation of the human cingulate gyrus. Neuron, 80, 1359-1367. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.057
129. Pizzagalli, D. A., Oakes, T. R., & Davidson, R. J. (2003). Coupling of theta activity and glucose metabolism in the human rostral anterior cingulate cortex: An EEG/PET study of normal and depressed subjects. Psychophysiology, 40, 939-949. doi:10.1111/1469-8986. 00112
130. Prescott, J. W., Guidon, A., Doraiswamy, P. M., Choudhury, K. R., Liu, C., & Petrella, J. (2014). The Alzheimer structural connectome: Changes in cortical network topology with increased amyloid plaque burden. Radiology. Epub. ahead of print.
131. Raichle, M. E., MacLeod, A. M., Snyder, A. Z., Powers, W. J., Gusnard, D. A., & Shulman, G. L. (2001). A default mode of brain function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 676-682. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.2.676
132. Raizada, R. D., & Poldrack, R. A. (2008). Challenge-driven attention: Interacting frontal and brainstem systems. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 1, 3. doi:10.3389/neuro.09.003.2007
133. Salinas, E., & Sejnowski, T. J. (2001). Correlated neuronal activity and the fl ow of neural information. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 539-550. doi:10.1038/35086012
134. Sara, S. J., & Bouret, S. (2012). Orienting and reorienting: The locus coeruleus mediates cognition through arousal. Neuron, 76, 130-141. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.09.011
135. Sarnthein, J., Petsche, H., Rappelsberger, P., Shaw, G. L., & von Stein, A. (1998). Synchronization between prefrontal and posterior association cortex during human working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95, 7092-7096. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/
136. Sato, N., & Yamaguchi, Y. (2007). Theta synchronization networks emerge during human object-place memory encoding. NeuroReport, 18, 419-424. doi:10.1097/WNR. 0b013e3280586760
137. Sauseng, P., Hoppe, J., Klimesch, W., Gerloff, C., & Hummel, F. C. (2007). Dissociation of sustained attention from central executive functions: Local activity and interregional connectivity in the theta range. European Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 587-593. doi:10.1111/ j.1460-9568.2006.05286.x
138. Schack, B., Vath, N., Petsche, H., Geissler, H. G., & Möller, E. (2002). Phase-coupling of theta-gamma EEG rhythms during short-term memory processing. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 44, 143-163. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(01)00199-4
139. Scheeringa, R., Bastiaansen, M., Petersson, K. M., Oostenveld, R., Norris, D. G., & Hagoort, P. (2008). Frontal theta EEG activity correlates negatively with the default mode network in resting state. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 67, 242-251. doi:10.1016/j. ijpsycho.2007.05.017
140. Scheffers, M. K., Humphrey, D. G., Stanny, R. R., Kramer, A. F., & Coles, M. G. (1999). Errorrelated processing during a period of extended wakefulness. Psychophysiology, 36, 149-157. doi:10.1111/1469-8986.3620149
141. Schimmack, U. (2012). The ironic effect of signifi cant results on the credibility of multiplestudy articles. Psychological Methods, 17, 551-566. doi:10.1037/a0029487
142. Sejnowski, T. J., & Destexhe, A. (2000). Why do we sleep? Brain Research, 886, 208-223. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(00)03007-9
143. Sejnowski, T. J., & Paulsen, O. (2006). Network oscillations: Emerging computational principles. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 1673-1676. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3737-05d.2006
144. Selkoe, D. J. (1993). Physiological production of the β-amyloid protein and the mechanism of Alzheimer's disease. Trends in Neurosciences, 16, 403-409. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(93) 90008-A
145. Selkoe, D. J. (2002). Alzheimer's disease is a synaptic failure. Science Magazine, 298, 789-791. doi:10.1126/science.1074069
146. Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79, 217-240. doi:10. 1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007
147. Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.127
148. Siegel, J. M., & Rogawski, M. A. (1988). A function for REM sleep: Regulation of noradrenergic receptor sensitivity. Brain Research Reviews, 13, 213-233. doi:10.1016/ 0165-0173(88)90007-0
149. Sperling, R. A., LaViolette, P. S., O'Keefe, K., O'Brien, J., Rentz, D. M., Pihlajamaki, M., . Johnson, K. A. (2009). Amyloid deposition is associated with impaired default network function in older persons without dementia. Neuron, 63, 178-188. doi:10.1016/j. neuron.2009.07.003
150. Spires-Jones, T. L., & Hyman, B. T. (2014). The intersection of amyloid beta and tau at synapses in Alzheimer's disease. Neuron, 82, 756-771. Retrieved from http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.05.004
151. Spruit, E. (2011, December 6). Mental fatigue, pupil responses and performance. In Identity is dynamic. Retrieved June 5, 2014, from http://identityisdynamic.com/2011/12/06/ mental-fatigue-pupil-responses-and-performance/
152. Stuss, D. T., & Knight, R. T. (2002). Principles of frontal lobe function. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
153. Talairach, J., Bancaud, J., Geier, S., Bordas-Ferrer, M., Bonis, A., Szikla, G., & Rusu, M. (1973). The cingulate gyrus and human behaviour. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 34, 45-52. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(73)90149-1
154. Tanaka, M., Ishii, A., & Watanabe, Y. (2014). Neural effect of mental fatigue on physical fatigue: A magnetoencephalography study. Brain Research, 1542, 49-55. doi:10.1016/j. brainres.2013.10.018
155. Tononi, G., & Cirelli, C. (2006). Sleep function and synaptic homeostasis. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 10, 49-62. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2005.05.002
156. Tsujimoto, T., Shimazu, H., & Isomura, Y. (2006). Direct recording of theta oscillations in primate prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices. Journal of Neurophysiology, 95, 2987- 3000. doi:10.1152/jn.00730.2005
157. Tsujimoto, T., Shimazu, H., Isomura, Y., & Sasaki, K. (2010). Theta oscillations in primate prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices in forewarned reaction time tasks. Journal of Neurophysiology, 103, 827-843. doi:10.1152/jn.00358.2009
158. Usher, M., Cohen, J. D., Servan-Schreiber, D., Rajkowski, J., & Aston-Jones, G. (1999). The role of locus coeruleus in the regulation of cognitive performance. Science, 283, 549-554. doi:10.1126/science.283.5401.549
159. Vaishnavi, S. N., Vlassenko, A. G., Rundle, M. M., Snyder, A. Z., Mintun, M. A., & Raichle, M. E. (2010). Regional aerobic glycolysis in the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 17757-17762. doi:10.1073/ pnas.1010459107
160. van der Linden, D. (2011). The urge to stop: The cognitive and biological nature of acute mental fatigue. In P. L. Acherman (Ed.), Cognitive fatigue: Multidisciplinary perspectives on current research and future applications (pp. 149-164). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
161. van der Linden, D., Frese, M., & Meijman, T. F. (2003). Mental fatigue and the control of cognitive processes: Effects on perseveration and planning. Acta Psychologica, 113, 45-65. doi:10.1016/S0001-6918(02)00150-6
162. Varela, F., Lachaux, J. P., Rodriguez, E., & Martinerie, J. (2001). The brainweb: Phase synchronization and large-scale integration. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 229-239. doi:10.1038/35067550
163. Verguts, T., & Notebaert, W. (2009). Adaptation by binding: A learning account of cognitive control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 252-257. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.02.007
164. Vlassenko, A. G., Vaishnavi, S. N., Couture, L., Sacco, D., Shannon, B. J., Mach, R. H., . Mintun, M. A. (2010). Spatial correlation between brain aerobic glycolysis and amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 17763-17767. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010461107
165. Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., Schmeichel, B. J., Twenge, J. M., Nelson, N. M., & Tice, D. M. (2008). Making choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited-resource account of decision making, self-regulation, and active initiative. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 883-898. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.883
166. Vyazovskiy, V. V., Cirelli, C., Pfi ster-Genskow, M., Faraguna, U., & Tononi, G. (2008). Molecular and electrophysiological evidence for net synaptic potentiation in wake and depression in sleep. Nature Neuroscience, 11, 200-208. doi:10.1038/nn2035
167. Walling, S. G., Brown, R. A., Milway, J. S., Earle, A. G., & Harley, C. W. (2011). Selective tuning of hippocampal oscillations by phasic locus coeruleus activation in awake male rats. Hippocampus, 21, 1250-1262. doi:10.1002/hipo.20816
168. Walling, S. G., & Harley, C. W. (2004). Locus ceruleus activation initiates delayed synaptic potentiation of perforant path input to the dentate gyrus in awake rats: A novel β-adrenergic-and protein synthesis-dependent mammalian plasticity mechanism. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 598-604. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4426-03.2004
169. Walton, M. E., Bannerman, D. M., & Rushworth, M. F. (2002). The role of rat medial frontal cortex in effort-based decision making. The Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 10996-11003. Retrieved from http://www.jneurosci.org/
170. Watrous, A. J., Tandon, N., Conner, C. R., Pieters, T., & Ekstrom, A. D. (2013). Frequencyspecifi c network connectivity increases underlie accurate spatiotemporal memory retrieval. Nature Neuroscience, 16, 349-356. doi:10.1038/nn.3315
171. Wang, C., Ulbert, I., Schomer, D. L., Marinkovic, K., & Halgren, E. (2005). Responses of human anterior cingulate cortex microdomains to error detection, confl ict monitoring, stimulus-response mapping, familiarity, and orienting. The Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 604-613. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4151-04.2005
172. Wei, W., Nguyen, L. N., Kessels, H. W., Hagiwara, H., Sisodia, S., & Malinow, R. (2010). Amyloid beta from axons and dendrites reduces local spine number and plasticity. Nature Neuroscience, 13, 190-196. doi:10.1038/nn.2476
173. Westbrook, A., Kester, D., & Braver, T. S. (2013). What is the subjective cost of cognitive effort? Load, trait, and aging effects revealed by economic preference. PLoS ONE, 8, e68210, 1-8. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068210
174. Womelsdorf, T., Johnston, K., Vinck, M., & Everling, S. (2010). Theta-activity in anterior cingulate cortex predicts task rules and their adjustments following errors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 5248-5253. doi:10. 1073/pnas.0906194107
175. Womelsdorf, T., Vinck, M., Leung, S. L., & Everling, S. (2010). Selective theta-synchronization of choice-relevant information subserves goal-directed behavior. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 210. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2010.00210
176. Xie, L., Kang, H., Xu, Q., Chen, M. J., Liao, Y., Thiyagarajan, M., . Nedergaard, M. (2013). Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain. Science Magazine, 342, 373-377. doi:10.1126/science.1241224
177. Yamaguchi, Y. (1981). Frontal midline theta activity. In M. Yamaguchi & K. Fujisawa (Eds.), Recent advances in EEG and EMG data processing (pp. 391-396). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
178. Yamamoto, S., & Matsuoka, S. (1990). Topographic EEG study of visual display terminal (VDT) performance with special reference to frontal midline theta waves. Brain Topography, 2, 257-267. doi:10.1007/BF01129654
179. Yan, P., Bero, A. W., Cirrito, J. R., Xiao, Q., Hu, X., Wang, Y., . Lee, J. M. (2009). Characterizing the appearance and growth of amyloid plaques in APP/PS1 mice. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 10706-10714. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2637-09. 2009
180. Yang, G., Lai, C.S.W., Cichon, J., Ma, L., Li, W., & Gan, W.-B. (2014). Sleep promotes branch-specifi c formation of dendritic spines after learning. Science, 344, 1173-1178. doi:10.1126/science.1249098
181. Young, C. K., & McNaughton, N. (2009). Coupling of theta oscillations between anterior and posterior midline cortex and with the hippocampus in freely behaving rats. Cerebral Cortex, 19, 24-40. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn055
182. Zeman, S. C. (2012). "To see. things dangerous to come to": Life magazine and the atomic age in the United States, 1945-1965. In D. van Lente (Ed.), The nuclear age in popular media (pp. 53-78). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
183. Zhang, J., Zhu, Y., Zhan, G., Fenik, P., Panossian, L., Wang, M. M., . Veasey, S. (2014). Extended wakefulness: Compromised metabolics in and degeneration of locus ceruleus neurons. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 4418-4431. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5025- 12.2014