Integrating parasites and pathogens into the study of geographic range limits

Quarterly Review of Biology

Volumn 90, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 361-380

  Bozick, Brooke A ^a   Real, Leslie A ^a  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Geographic range limits; Host pathogen interactions; Species distribution

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; ANIMAL; BIOTA; ENVIRONMENT; EVOLUTION; HOST RANGE; HUMAN; PARASITE; PHYSIOLOGY;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ANIMALS; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; BIOTA; ENVIRONMENT; HOST SPECIFICITY; HUMANS; PARASITES;

EID: 84948130033     PISSN: 00335770     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/683698     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Adam S. G., Caraux A., Fodil-Cornu N., Loredo-Osti J. C., Lesjean-Pottier S., Jaubert J., Bubic I., Jonjic S., Guénet J. L., Vidal S. M., Colucci F. 2006. Cmv4, a new locus linked to the NK cell gene complex, controls innate resistance to cytomegalovirus in wild-derived mice. Journal of Immunology 176:5478- 5485.
2. Afrane Y. A., Little T. J., Lawson B. W., Githeko A. K., Yan G. 2008. Deforestation and vectorial capacity of Anopheles gambiae giles mosquitoes in malaria transmission, Kenya. Emerging Infectious Diseases 14: 1533-1538.
3. Agostini H. T., Ryschkewitsch C. F., Stoner G. L. 1996. Genotype profile of human polyomavirus JC excreted in urine of immunocompetent individuals. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 34:159 - 164.
4. Albà M. M., Das R., Orengo C. A., Kellam P. 2001. Genomewide function conservation and phylogeny in the Herpesviridae. Genome Research 11:43- 54.
5. Altizer S., Dobson A., Hosseini P., Hudson P., Pascual M., Rohani P. 2006. Seasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecology Letters 9:467- 484.
6. Altizer S., Ostfeld R. S., Johnson P. T. J., Kutz S., Harvell C. D. 2013. Climate change and infectious diseases: from evidence to a predictive framework. Science 341:514-519.
7. Amundsen P.-A., Lafferty K. D., Knudsen R., Primicerio R., Kristoffersen R., Klemetsen A., Kuris A. M. 2013. New parasites and predators follow the introduction of two fish species to a subarctic lake: implications for food-web structure and functioning. Oecologia 171:993-1002.
8. Anderson B. J., Akçakaya H. R., Araújo M. B., Fordham D. A., Martinez-Meyer E., Thuiller W., Brook B. W. 2009. Dynamics of range margins for metapopulations under climate change. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 276: 1415-1420.
9. Anderson R. C. 1972. The ecological relationships of meningeal worm and native cervids in North America. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 8:304 -310.
10. Antonovics J. 2009. The effect of sterilizing diseases on host abundance and distribution along environmental gradients. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 276:1443- 1448.
11. Antonovics J., Edwards M. 2011. Spatio-temporal dynamics of bumblebee nest parasites (Bombus subgenus Psythirus ssp.) and their hosts (Bombus spp.). Journal of Animal Ecology 80:999 -1011.
12. Arenas M., Ray N., Currat M., Excoffier L. 2012. Consequences of range contractions and range shifts on molecular diversity. Molecular Biology and Evolution 29:207-218.
13. Baer G. M. 1975. The Natural History of Rabies, Volume 2. New York: Academic Press.
14. Barrera R., Avila J., González-Téllez S. 1993. Unreliable supply of potable water and elevated Aedes aegypti larval indexes: a causal relationship? Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 9:189- 195.
15. Barrera R., Navarro J. C., Mora J. D., Domínguez D., González J. 1995. Public service deficiencies and Aedes aegypti breeding sites in Venezuela. Bulletin of Pan American Health Organization 29:193-205.
16. Barrera R., Amador M., MacKay A. J. 2011. Population dynamics of Aedes aegypti and dengue as influenced by weather and human behavior in San Juan, Puerto Rico. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5:e1378.
17. Bartlett M. S. 1957. Measles periodicity and community size. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (General) 120:48 -70.
18. Bartlett M. S. 1960. The critical community size for measles in the United States. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (General) 123:37-44.
19. Bian G., Xu Y., Lu P., Xie Y., Xi Z. 2010. The endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia induces resistance to dengue virus in Aedes aegypti. PLOS Pathogens 6:e1000833.
20. Biek R., Real L. A. 2010. The landscape genetics of infectious disease emergence and spread. Molecular Ecology 19:3515-3531.
21. Biek R., Drummond A. J., Poss M. 2006. A virus reveals population structure and recent demographic history of its carnivore host. Science 311:538-541.
22. Biek R., Henderson J. C., Waller L. A., Rupprecht C. E., Real L. A. 2007. A high-resolution genetic signature of demographic and spatial expansion in epizootic rabies virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104:7993-7998.
23. Black F. L. 1975. Infectious diseases in primitive societies. Science 187:515-518.
24. Boots M. 2011. The evolution of resistance to a parasite is determined by resources. American Naturalist 178:214-220.
25. Briers R. A. 2003. Range limits and parasite prevalence in a freshwater snail. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 270:S178- S180.
26. Brockhurst M. A., Buckling A., Poullain V., Hochberg M. E. 2007. The impact of migration from parasite-free patches on antagonistic host-parasite coevolution. Evolution 61:1238-1243.
27. Brown J. H. 1984. On the relationship between abundance and distribution of species. American Naturalist 124:255-279.
28. Brown J. H., Lomolino M. V. 1998. Biogeography. Second Edition. Sunderland (Massachusetts): Sinauer Associates.
29. Calvete C., Miranda M. A., Estrada R., Borras D., Sarto I Monteys V., Collantes F., Garcia-de-Francisco J. M., Moreno N., Lucientes J. 2006. Spatial distribution of Culicoides imicola, the main vector of bluetongue virus, in Spain. Veterinary Record 158: 130-131.
30. Caminade C., Kovats S., Rocklov J., Tompkins A. M., Morse A. P., Colón-González F. J., Stenlund H., Martens P., Lloyd S. J. 2014. Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111:3286-3291.
31. Case T. J., Holt R. D., McPeek M. A., Keitt T. H. 2005. The community context of species' borders: ecological and evolutionary perspectives. Oikos 108: 28-46.
32. Cerrano C., Bavestrello G., Bianchi C. N., Cattaneovietti R., Bava S., Morganti C., Morri C., Picco P., Sara G., Schiaparelli S., Siccardi A., Sponga F. 2000. A catastrophic mass-mortality episode of gorgonians and other organisms in the Ligurian Sea (North-western Mediterranean), summer 1999. Ecology Letters 3:284 -293.
33. Conner M. M., Miller M. W. 2004. Movement patterns and spatial epidemiology of a prion disease in mule deer population units. Ecological Applications 14:1870-1881.
34. Constantin de Magny G., Renaud F., Durand P., Gué- gan J.-F. 2008. Health ecology: a new tool, the macroscope. Pages 129-148 in Ecology and Evolution of Parasitism, edited by F. Thomas, J.-F. Gué- gan, and F. Renaud. Oxford (United Kingdom): Oxford University Press.
35. De Castro F., Bolker B. 2005. Mechanisms of diseaseinduced extinction. Ecology Letters 8:117-126.
36. de Meeûs T., Renaud F. 2002. Parasites within the new phylogeny of eukaryotes. Trends in Parasitology 18: 247-251.
37. Duke-Sylvester S. M., Bolzoni L., Real L. A. 2011. Strong seasonality produces spatial asynchrony in the outbreak of infectious diseases. Journal of The Royal Society Interface 8:817- 825.
38. Edmonds C. A., Lillie A. S., Cavalli-Sforza L. L. 2004. Mutations arising in the wave front of an expanding population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101:975- 979.
39. Epstein P. R. 2000. Is global warming harmful to health? Scientific American 283:50 -57.
40. Estrada-Peña A., Ostfeld R. S., Peterson A. T., Poulin R., de la Fuente J. 2014. Effects of environmental change on zoonotic disease risk: an ecological primer. Trends in Parasitology 30:205-214.
41. Falush D., Wirth T., Linz B., Pritchard J. K., Stephens M., Kidd M., Blaser M. J., Graham D. Y., Vacher S., Perez-Perez G. I., Yamaoka Y., Mégraud F., Otto K., Reichard U., Katzowitsch E., Wang X., Achtman M., Suerbaum S. 2003. Traces of human migrations in Helicobacter pylori populations. Science 299:1582-1585.
42. Fang L.-Q., Wang L.-P., de Vlas S. J., Liang S., Tong S.-L., Li Y.-L., Li Y.-P., Qian Q., Yang H., Zhou M.-G., Wang X.-F., Richardus J. H., Ma J.-Q., Cao W.-C. 2012. Distribution and risk factors of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) in mainland China. American Journal of Epidemiology 175:890- 897.
43. Gibson L. R., Li B., Remold S. K. 2010. Treating cofactors can reverse the expansion of a primary disease epidemic. BMC Infectious Diseases 10:248.
44. Grenfell B. T., Bjørnstad O. N., Kappey J. 2001. Travelling waves and spatial hierarchies in measles epidemics. Nature 414:716-723.
45. Grenfell B. T., Pybus O. G., Gog J. R., Wood J. L. N., Daly J. M., Mumford J. A., Holmes E. C. 2004. Unifying the epidemiological and evolutionary dynamics of pathogens. Science 303:327-332.
46. Gubler D. J. 2004. The changing epidemiology of yellow fever and dengue, 1900 to 2003: full circle? Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 27:319 -330.
47. Guernier V., Hochberg M. E., Guégan J.-F. 2004. Ecology drives the worldwide distribution of human diseases. PLOS Biology 2:e141.
48. Halpin K., Hyatt A. D., Plowright R. K., Epstein J. H., Daszak P., Field H. E., Wang L., Daniels P. W., Henipavirus Ecology Research Group. 2007. Emerging viruses: coming in on a wrinkled wing and a prayer. Clinical Infectious Diseases 44:711-717.
49. Hargreaves A. L., Samis K. E., Eckert C. G. 2014. Are species' range limits simply niche limits writ large? A review of transplant experiments beyond the range. American Naturalist 183:157-173.
50. Harvell C. D., Mitchell C. E., Ward J. R., Altizer S., Dobson A. P., Ostfeld R. S., Samuel M. D. 2002. Climate warming and disease risks for terrestrial and marine biota. Science 296:2158-2162.
51. Hatwell J. N., Sharp P. M. 2000. Evolution of human polyomavirus JC. Journal of General Virology 81: 1191-1200.
52. Hedges L. M., Brownlie J. C., O'Neill S. L., Johnson K. N. 2008. Wolbachia and virus protection in insects. Science 322:702.
53. Hemmerter S., Šlapeta J., van den Hurk A. F., Cooper R. D., Whelan P. I., Russell R. C., Johansen C. A., Beebe N. W. 2007. A curious coincidence: mosquito biodiversity and the limits of the Japanese encephalitis virus in Australasia. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7:100.
54. Heymann D. L., Szczeniowski M., Esteves K. 1998. Reemergence of monkeypox in Africa: a review of the past six years. British Medical Bulletin 54:693-702.
55. Hickling R., Roy D. B., Hill J. K., Thomas C. D. 2005. A northward shift of range margins in British Odonata. Global Change Biology 11:502-506.
56. Hillyard P. D. 1996. Ticks of North-West Europe: Keys and Notes for Identification of the Species. Shrewsbury (United Kingdom): Published for the Linnean Society of London and the Estuarine and Coastal Sciences Association by Field Studies Council.
57. Hoberg E. P., Brooks D. R. 2008. A macroevolutionary mosaic: episodic host-switching, geographical colonization and diversification in complex hostparasite systems. Journal of Biogeography 35:1533- 1550.
58. Hoberg E. P., Kutz S. J., Nagy J., Jenkins E., Elkin B., Branigan M., Cooley D. 2002. Protostrongylus stilesi (Nematoda: Protostrongylidae): ecological isolation and putative host-switching between Dall's sheep and muskoxen in a contact zone. Comparative Parasitology 69:1-9.
59. Hofmann E., Bushek D., Ford S., Guo X., Haidvogel D., Hedgecock D., Klinck J., Milbury C., Narvaez D., Powell E., Wang Y., Wang Z., Wilkin J., Zhang L., Delaware Bay Ecology of Infectious Diseases Group. 2009. Understanding how disease and environment combine to structure resistance in estuarine bivalve populations. Oceanography 22:212-231.
60. Holmes E. C. 2003. Error thresholds and the constraints to RNA virus evolution. Trends in Microbiology 11:543-546.
61. Holmes E. C. 2004. The phylogeography of human viruses. Molecular Ecology 13:745-756.
62. Holmes E. C. 2009. The Evolution and Emergence of RNA Viruses. Oxford (United Kingdom): Oxford University Press.
63. Holt R. D., Barfield M. 2009. Trophic interactions and range limits: the diverse roles of predation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 276:1435-1442.
64. Hongoh V., Berrang-Ford L., Scott M. E., Lindsay L. R. 2012. Expanding geographical distribution of the mosquito, Culex pipiens, in Canada under climate change. Applied Geography 33:53- 62.
65. Hosseini P. R., Dhondt A. A., Dobson A. 2004. Seasonality and wildlife disease: how seasonal birth, aggregation and variation in immunity affect the dynamics of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in house finches. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 271:2569-2577.
66. Jenkins G. M., Rambaut A., Pybus O. G., Holmes E. C. 2002. Rates of molecular evolution in RNA viruses: a quantitative phylogenetic analysis. Journal of Molecular Evolution 54:156 -165.
67. Jones K. E., Patel N. G., Levy M. A., Storeygard A., Balk D., Gittleman J. L., Daszak P. 2008. Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 451: 990-993.
68. Jousimo J., Tack A. J. M., Ovaskainen O., Mononen T., Susi H., Tollenaere C., Laine A.-L. 2014. Ecological and evolutionary effects of fragmentation on infectious disease dynamics. Science 344:1289- 1293.
69. Keeling M. J., Bjørnstad O. N., Grenfell B. T. 2004. Metapopulation dynamics of infectious diseases. Pages 415-445 in Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution of Metapopulations, edited by I. A. Hanski and O. E. Gaggiotti. Burlington (Massachusetts): Academic Press.
70. Klopfstein S., Currat M., Excoffier L. 2006. The fate of mutations surfing on the wave of a range expansion. Molecular Biology and Evolution 23: 482- 490.
71. Krasnov B. R., Poulin R., Shenbrot G. I., Mouillot D., Khokhlova I. S. 2005. Host specificity and geographic range in haematophagous ectoparasites. Oikos 108:449-456.
72. Kubinak J. L., Ruff J. S., Hyzer C. W., Slev P. R., Potts W. K. 2012. Experimental viral evolution to specific host MHC genotypes reveals fitness and virulence trade-offs in alternative MHC types. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109:3422-3427.
73. Kutz S. J., Hoberg E. P., Polley L., Jenkins E. J. 2005. Global warming is changing the dynamics of Arctic hostparasite systems. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 272:2571-2576.
74. Lafferty K. D. 2009. The ecology of climate change and infectious diseases. Ecology 90:888 -900.
75. Lefeuvre P., Lett J.-M., Reynaud B., Martin D. P. 2007. Avoidance of protein fold disruption in natural virus recombinants. PLOS Pathogens 3:e181.
76. Leonard K. J. 1969. Factors affecting rates of stem rust increase in mixed plantings of susceptible and resistant oat varieties. Phytopathology 59:1845-1850.
77. Lietman T., Porco T., Blower S. 1997. Leprosy and tuberculosis: the epidemiological consequences of cross-immunity. American Journal of Public Health 87:1923-1927.
78. Louhi K.-R., Karvonen A., Rellstab C., Jokela J. 2010. Is the population genetic structure of complex life cycle parasites determined by the geographic range of the most motile host? Infection, Genetics and Evolution 10:1271-1277.
79. Malenke J. R., Newbold N., Clayton D. H. 2011. Condition-specific competition governs the geographic distribution and diversity of ectoparasites. American Naturalist 177:522-534.
80. Martens W. J. M. 1998. Health and Climate Change: Modelling the Impacts of Global Warming and Ozone Depletion. London (United Kingdom): Earthscan.
81. Martens W. J. M., Niessen L. W., Rotmans J., Jetten T. H., McMichael A. J. 1995. Potential impact of global climate change on malaria risk. Environmental Health Perspectives 103:458-464.
82. Martin D. P., van der Walt E., Posada D., Rybicki E. P. 2005. The evolutionary value of recombination is constrained by genome modularity. PLOS Genetics 1:e51.
83. Mills J. N., Gage K. L., Khan A. S. 2010. Potential influence of climate change on vector-borne and zoonotic diseases: a review and proposed research plan. Environmental Health Perspectives 118:1507- 1514.
84. Mizokami M., Orito E., Ohba K., Ikeo K., Lau J. Y. N., Gojobori T. 1997. Constrained evolution with respect to gene overlap of hepatitis B virus. Journal of Molecular Evolution 44:S83-S90.
85. Moore S., Shrestha S., Tomlinson K. W., Vuong H. 2012. Predicting the effect of climate change on African trypanosomiasis: integrating epidemiology with parasite and vector biology. Journal of The Royal Society Interface 9:817- 830.
86. Moreira L. A., Iturbe-Ormaetxe I., Jeffery J. A., Lu G., Pyke A. T., Hedges L. M., Rocha B. C., Hall- Mendelin S., Day A., Riegler M., Hugo L. E., John- son K. N., Kay B. H., McGraw E. A., van den Hurk A. F., Ryan P. A., O'Neill S. L. 2009. A Wolbachia symbiont in Aedes aegypti limits infection with dengue, chikungunya, and Plasmodium. Cell 139:1268- 1278.
87. Nguyen-Van-Tam J. S. 1998. Epidemiology of influenza. Pages 181-206 in Textbook of Influenza, edited by K. Nicholson, R. G. Webster, and A. J. Hay. Malden (Massachusetts): Blackwell Science.
88. Nieberding C. M., Olivieri I. 2007. Parasites: proxies for host genealogy and ecology? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22:156 -165.
89. Nieberding C., Morand S., Libois R., Michaux J. R. 2004. A parasite reveals cryptic phylogeographic history of its host. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 271:2559 -2568.
90. Nuismer S. L. 2006. Parasite local adaptation in a geographic mosaic. Evolution 60:24 -30.
91. Nuismer S. L., Kirkpatrick M. 2003. Gene flow and the coevolution of parasite range. Evolution 57: 746-754.
92. Nuismer S. L., Thompson J. N., Gomulkiewicz R. 2003. Coevolution between hosts and parasites with partially overlapping geographic ranges. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 16:1337-1345.
93. O'Brien S. J., Evermann J. F. 1988. Interactive influence of infectious disease and genetic diversity in natural populations. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 3:254 -259.
94. Parmesan C., Ryrholm N., Stefanescu C., Hill J. K., Thomas C. D., Descimon H., Huntley B., Kaila L., Kullberg J., Tammaru T., Tennent W. J., Thomas J. A., Warren M. 1999. Poleward shifts in geographical ranges of butterfly species associated with regional warming. Nature 399:579-583.
95. Pascual M., Bouma M. J. 2009. Do rising temperatures matter? Ecology 90:906 -912.
96. Price P. W. 1980. Evolutionary Biology of Parasites. Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University Press.
97. Pulliam H. R. 2000. On the relationship between niche and distribution. Ecology Letters 3:349 -361.
98. Purse B. V., Mellor P. S., Rogers D. J., Samuel A. R., Mertens P. P. C., Baylis M. 2005. Climate change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe. Nature Reviews Microbiology 3:171-181.
99. Raffel T. R., Rohr J. R., Kiesecker J. M., Hudson P. J. 2006. Negative effects of changing temperature on amphibian immunity under field conditions. Functional Ecology 20:819-828.
100. Ramey A. M., Pearce J. M., Ely C. R., Guy L. M. S., Irons D. B., Derksen D. V., Ip H. S. 2010. Transmission and reassortment of avian influenza viruses at the Asian-North American interface. Virology 406:352-359.
101. Randolph S. E. 2010. To what extent has climate change contributed to the recent epidemiology of tick-borne diseases? Veterinary Parasitology 167:92-94.
102. Randolph S. E., Green R. M., Peacey M. F., Rogers D. J. 2000. Seasonal synchrony: the key to tickborne encephalitis foci identified by satellite data. Parasitology 121:15-23.
103. Rapoport E. H. 1975. Areografía: Estrategias Geográficas de las Especies. Mexico City (Mexico): Fondo de Cultura Económica.
104. Rapoport E. H. 1982. Areography: Geographical Strategies of Species. First English Edition. New York: Fundacio ń Bariloche.
105. Real L. A., Russell C., Waller L., Smith D., Childs J. 2005. Spatial dynamics and molecular ecology of North American rabies. Journal of Heredity 96:253- 260.
106. Reiter P., Lathrop S., Bunning M., Biggerstaff B., Singer D., Tiwari T., Baber L., Amador M., Thirion J., Hayes J., Seca C., Mendez J., Ramirez B., Robinson J., Rawlings J., Vorndam V., Waterman S., Gubler D., Clark G., Hayes E. 2003. Texas lifestyle limits transmission of dengue virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9:86-89.
107. Reullier J., Pérez-Tris J., Bensch S., Secondi J. 2006. Diversity, distribution and exchange of blood parasites meeting at an avian moving contact zone. Molecular Ecology 15:753-763.
108. Robb G. N., McDonald R. A., Chamberlain D. E., Bearhop S. 2008. Food for thought: supplementary feeding as a driver of ecological change in avian populations. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6:476-484.
109. Rogers D. J., Randolph S. E. 2000. The global spread of malaria in a future, warmer world. Science 289: 1763-1766.
110. Rohr J. R., Raffel T. R. 2010. Linking global climate and temperature variability to widespread amphibian declines putatively caused by disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107:8269-8274.
111. Rohr J. R., Dobson A. P., Johnson P. T. J., Kilpatrick A. M., Paull S. H., Raffel T. R., Ruiz-Moreno D., Thomas M. B. 2011. Frontiers in climate changedisease research. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 26:270 -277.
112. Rosenzweig C., Karoly D., Vicarelli M., Neofotis P., Wu Q., Casassa G., Menzel A., Root T. L., Estrella N., Seguin B., Tryjanowski P., Liu C., Rawlins S., Imeson A. 2008. Attributing physical and biological impacts to anthropogenic climate change. Nature 453:353-357.
113. Russell C. A., Jones T. C., Barr I. G., et al. 2008. The global circulation of seasonal influenza A (H3N2) viruses. Science 320:340-346.
114. Sachs J., Malaney P. 2002. The economic and social burden of malaria. Nature 415:680-685.
115. Siraj A. S., Santos-Vega M., Bouma M. J., Yadeta D., Ruiz Carrascal D., Pascual M. 2014. Altitudinal changes in malaria incidence in highlands of Ethiopia and Colombia. Science 343:1154-1158.
116. Smith K. F., Guégan J.-F. 2010. Changing geographic distributions of human pathogens. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 41:231-250.
117. Soberón J., Peterson A. T. 2005. Interpretation of models of fundamental ecological niches and species' distributional areas. Biodiversity Informatics 2:1-10.
118. Spiegel J., Bennett S., Hattersley L., Hayden M. H., Kittayapong P., Nalim S., Wang D. N. C., Zielinski- Gutiérrez E., Gubler D. 2005. Barriers and bridges to prevention and control of dengue: the need for a social-ecological approach. EcoHealth 2:273-290.
119. Srithayakumar V., Castillo S., Rosatte R. C., Kyle C. J. 2011. MHC class II DRB diversity in raccoons (Procyon lotor) reveals associations with raccoon rabies virus (Lyssavirus). Immunogenetics 63:103-113.
120. Stevens G. C. 1989. The latitudinal gradient in geographical range: how so many species coexist in the tropics. American Naturalist 133:240-256.
121. Streicker D. G., Turmelle A. S., Vonhof M. J., Kuzmin I. V., McCracken G. F., Rupprecht C. E. 2010. Host phylogeny constrains cross-species emergence and establishment of rabies virus in bats. Science 329: 676-679.
122. Teixeira L., Ferreira Á., Ashburner M. 2008. The bacterial symbiont Wolbachia induces resistance to RNA viral infections in Drosophila melanogaster. PLOS Biology 6:e1000002.
123. Templeton A. R. 1998. Nested clade analyses of phylogeographic data: testing hypotheses about gene flow and population history. Molecular Ecology 7:381-397.
124. Thieltges D. W., Hof C., Borregaard M. K., Dehling D. M., Brändle M., Brandl R., Poulin R. 2011. Range size patterns in European freshwater trematodes. Ecography 34:982-989.
125. Thompson J. N. 2005. The Geographic Mosaic of Coevolution. Chicago (Illinois): University of Chicago Press.
126. Valle D., Clark J. 2013. Conservation efforts may increase malaria burden in the Brazilian Amazon. PLOS ONE 8:e57519.
127. van den Hurk A. F., Craig S. B., Tulsiani S. M., Jansen C. C. 2010. Emerging tropical diseases in Australia. Part 4. Mosquitoborne diseases. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 104:623-640.
128. Viboud C., Bjørnstad O. N., Smith D. L., Simonsen L., Miller M. A., Grenfell B. T. 2006. Synchrony, waves, and spatial hierarchies in the spread of influenza. Science 312:447-451.
129. Villarreal L. P., Defilippis V. R., Gottlieb K. A. 2000. Acute and persistent viral life strategies and their relationship to emerging diseases. Virology 272:1-6.
130. Warren M. S., Hill J. K., Thomas J. A., Asher J., Fox R., Huntley B., Roy D. B., Telfer M. G., Jeffcoate S., Harding P., Jeffcoate G., Willis S. G., Greatorex- Davies J. N., Moss D., Thomas C. D. 2001. Rapid responses of British butterflies to opposing forces of climate and habitat change. Nature 414:65-69.
131. Watson D. W., Mullens B. A., Petersen J. J. 1993. Behavioral fever response of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) to infection by Entomophthora muscae (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 61:10 -16.
132. Webster W. A., Casey G. A., Tabel H., Corner A. H. 1974. Skunk rabies in Ontario. Canadian Veterinary Journal 15:163-167.
133. Weiss R. A., McMichael A. J. 2004. Social and environmental risk factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Nature Medicine 10:S70 -S76.
134. Wild M. A., Hobbs N. T., Graham M. S., Miller M. W. 2011. The role of predation in disease control: a comparison of selective and nonselective removal on prion disease dynamics in deer. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 47:78 -93.
135. Wilson M. E., Chen L. H. 2002. Dengue in the Americas. Dengue Bulletin 26:44-61.
136. Wirth T., Meyer A., Achtman M. 2005. Deciphering host migrations and origins by means of their microbes. Molecular Ecology 14:3289-3306.
137. Wood C. L., Lafferty K. D. 2013. Biodiversity and disease: a synthesis of ecological perspectives on Lyme disease transmission. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 28:239 -247.
138. Wood C. L., Lafferty K. D., DeLeo G., Young H. S., Hudson P. J., Kuris A. M. 2014. Does biodiversity protect humans against infectious disease? Ecology 95:817-832.
139. Woolhouse M. E. J., Taylor L. H., Haydon D. T. 2001. Population biology of multihost pathogens. Science 292:1109-1112.
140. Yanagihara R., Nerurkar V. R., Scheirich I., Agostini H. T., Mgone C. S., Cui X. H., Jobes D. V., Cubitt C. L., Ryschkewitsch C. F., Hrdy D. B., Friedlaender J. S., Stoner G. L. 2002. JC virus genotypes in the Western Pacific suggest Asian mainland relationships and virus association with early population movements. Human Biology 74:473-488.
141. Yogo Y., Sugimoto C., Zheng H.-Y., Ikegaya H., Takasaka T., Kitamura T. 2004. JC virus genotyping offers a new paradigm in the study of human populations. Reviews in Medical Virology 14:179-191.