Marines, medics, and machismo: Lack of fit with masculine occupational stereotypes discourages men's participation

British Journal of Psychology

Volumn 106, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 635-655

  Peters, Kim ^a,b   Ryan, Michelle K ^b,c   Haslam, S Alexander ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GRONINGEN   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Gender stereotypes; Masculinity; Men; Occupational engagement; Occupational identification

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; EMOTION; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; MASCULINITY; PSYCHOLOGY; QUESTIONNAIRE; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SOLDIER; STEREOTYPY; SURGEON; WORKPLACE; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; EMOTIONS; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MASCULINITY; MEN; MILITARY PERSONNEL; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; STEREOTYPED BEHAVIOR; SURGEONS; SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES; WORKPLACE; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84943581367     PISSN: 00071269     EISSN: 20448295     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12106     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2. Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14, 20-39. doi:10.2307/258189
3. Barone, C. (2011). Some things never change: Gender segregation in higher education across eight nations and three decades. Sociology of Education, 84(2), 157-176.
4. Barrett, F. J. (1996). The organizational construction of hegemonic masculinity: The case of the US Navy. Gender, Work & Organization, 3, 129-142. doi:10.1111/1468-0432.00011
5. Baunach, D. M. (2002). Trends in occupational sex segregation and inequality, 1950 to 1990. Social Science Research, 31(1), 77-98. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.552
6. Boldero, J. M., Rawlings, D., & Haslam, N. (2007). Convergence between GNAT-assessed implicit and explicit personality. European Journal of Personality, 21(3), 341-358.
7. Bosson, J. K., Prewitt-Freilino, J. L., & Taylor, J. N. (2005). Role rigidity: A problem of identity misclassification? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 552-565.
8. Buyske, J. (2005). Women in surgery: The same yet different. Archives of Surgery, 140, 241-244. doi:10.1001/archsurg.140.3.241
9. Cameron, J. E. (2004). A three-factor model of social identity. Self and Identity, 3, 239-262. doi:10.1080/13576500444000047
10. Cassell, J. (1986). Dismembering the image of god. Surgeons, heros, wimps and miracles. Anthropology Today, 2, 13-15. doi:10.2307/3033031
11. Cejka, M. A., & Eagly, A. H. (1999). Gender-stereotypic images of occupations correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 413-423. doi:10.1177/0146167299025004002
12. Charles, M., & Grusky, D. B. (2004). Occupational ghettos. The worldwide segregation of men and women. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
13. Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied psychology, 86, 499. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499
14. Doosje, B., Ellemers, N., & Spears, R. (1995). Perceived intragroup variability as a function of group status and identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 410-436. doi:10.1006/jesp.1995.1018
15. Eagly, A., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573-598. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573
16. Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 735-754.
17. Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In T. Eckes & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123-174). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
18. Edwards, J. R. (1993). Problems with the use of profile similarity indices in the study of congruence in organizational research. Personnel Psychology, 46, 461-665. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1993.tb00889.x
19. Edwards, J. R. (1994). The study of congruence in organizational behavior research: Critique and a proposed alternative. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 58, 51-100. doi:10.1006/obhd.1994.1029
20. Ellemers, N., de Gilder, D., & Haslam, S. A. (2004). Motivating individuals and groups at work: A social identity perspective on leadership and group performance. Academy of Management Review, 29, 459-478. doi:10.2307/20159054
21. England, P., & Browne, I. (1992). Trends in women's economic status. Sociological Perspectives, 35(1), 17-51.
22. Ette, M. (2013). Gendered frontlines: British press coverage of women soldiers killed in Iraq. Media, War & Conflict, 6, 249-262. doi:10.1177/1750635213487276
23. Gargiulo, D. A., Hyman, N. H., & Hebert, J. C. (2006). Women in surgery: Do we really understand the deterrents? Archives of Surgery, 141, 405-408. doi:10.1001/archsurg.141.4.405
24. Gawande, A. (2012). Two hundred years of surgery. New England Journal of Medicine, 366(18), 1716-1723.
25. Hagedoorn, M., Van Yperen, N. W., Van de Vliert, E., & Buunk, B. P. (1999). Employees' reactions to problematic events: A circumplex structure of five categories of responses, and the role of job satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 309-321. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199905)20:3%3C309:AID-JOB895%3E3.0.CO;2-P
26. Hale, H. C. (2008). The development of British military masculinities through symbolic resources. Culture & Psychology, 14, 305-332. doi:10.1177/1354067X08092636
27. Haslam, S. A., & Ellemers, N. (2005). Social identity in industrial and organizational psychology: Concepts, controversies and contributions. In G. P. Hodgkinson (Ed.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 39-118). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
28. Heilman, M. E. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. In B. Staw & L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. V, pp. 269-298). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
29. Jetten, J., Spears, R., & Manstead, A. S. (1997). Distinctiveness threat and prototypicality: Combined effects on intergroup discrimination and collective self-esteem. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 635-657. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199711/12)27:6%3C635:AID-EJSP835%3E3.0.CO;2-%23
30. Kellogg, K. C. (2012). Making the cut: Using status-based countertactics to block social movement implementation and microinstitutional change in surgery. Organization Science, 23, 1546-1570. doi:10.1287/orsc.1110.0704
31. Kierski, W., & Blazina, C. (2009). The male fear of the feminine and its effects on counseling and psychotherapy. The Journal of Men's Studies, 17, 155-172. doi:10.3149/jms.1702.155
32. Klein, U. (1999). "Our best boys": The gendered nature of civil-military relations in Israel. Men and Masculinities, 2, 47-65. doi:10.1177/1097184X99002001004
33. Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 616. doi:10.1037/a0023557
34. Lane, D., & Gibbons, F. X. (2007). Am I the typical student? Perceived similarity to student prototypes predicts success. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1380-1391. doi:10.1177/0146167207304789
35. Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1997). Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 91. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.73.1.91
36. MOD (2010). Report on the review of the exclusion of women from ground close-combat roles. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/27403/Report_review_excl_woman_combat_pr.pdf
37. Murdock, G. P., & Provost, C. (1973). Factors in the division of labor by sex: A cross-cultural analysis. Ethnology, 12, 203-225.
38. NHS (2014). NHS workforce statistics. Retrieved from http://www.hscic.gov.uk/searchcatalogue?topics=0%2fWorkforce%26sort=Relevance%26size=10%26page=1#top
39. Noel, J. G., Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1995). Peripheral ingroup membership status and public negativity toward outgroups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 127-137. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.68.1.127
40. Olkkonen, M., & Lipponen, J. (2006). Relationships between organizational justice, identification with the organization and the work-unit, and group-related outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 100, 202-215. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.08.007
41. Peters, K., Ryan, M. R., & Haslam, S. A. (2012). In our leader's footsteps: The shaping of career motivation by perceived similarity to occupational prototypes. Unpublished manuscript.
42. Peters, K., Ryan, M., Haslam, S. A., & Fernandes, H. (2012). To belong or not to belong: Evidence that women's occupational disidentification is promoted by lack of fit with masculine occupational prototypes. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 11, 148-158. doi:10.1027/1866-5888/a000067
43. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
44. Postmes, T., Haslam, S. A., & Jans, L. (2013). A single-item measure of social identification: Reliability, validity and utility. British Journal of Social Psychology, 52, 597-617. doi:10.1111/bjso.12006
45. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
46. Rawlings, D. (2001). A short adjective checklist for measuring the five factors of personality. Unpublished manuscript.
47. Reskin, B. (1993). Sex segregation in the workplace. Annual Review of Sociology, 19(1), 241-270. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.19.1.241
48. Reskin, B., & Roos, P. (1990). Job queues, gender queues. Explaining Womens Inroads into Male Occupations. Philadelphia, PA: Temple.
49. Rossiter, J. R. (2002). The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 19, 305-335. doi:10.1016/S0167-8116(02)00097-6
50. Rossiter, J. R. (2008). Content validity of measures of abstract constructs in management and organizational research. British Journal of Management, 19, 380-388. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.2008.00587.x
51. Royal College of Surgeons (2014). Surgery and the NHS in numbers. Retrieved from http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/media/media-background-briefings-and-statistics/surgery-and-the-nhs-in-numbers
52. Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 743-762. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00239
53. Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A., Hersby, M. D., & Bongiorno, R. (2011). Think crisis-think female: The glass cliff and contextual variation in the think manager-think male stereotype. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(3), 470-484.
54. Schein, V. E. (1973). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57, 95-100. doi:10.1037/h0037128
55. Schein, V. E. (1975). Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 340. doi:10.1037/h0076637
56. Schmader, T., Major, B., & Gramzow, R. H. (2001). Coping with ethnic stereotypes in the academic domain: Perceived injustice and psychological disengagement. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 93-111. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00203
57. Seibert, M. T., Fossett, M. A., & Baunach, D. M. (1997). Trends in male-female status inequality, 1940-1990. Social Science Research, 26(1), 1-24.
58. Siemsen, E., Roth, A., & Oliveira, P. (2010). Common method bias in regression models with linear, quadratic, and interaction effects. Organizational Research Methods, 13, 456-476. doi:10.1177/1094428109351241
59. Swanson, P. A. (2011). Occupational sex segregation and economic development. Journal of Business & Economics Research (JBER), 3(8), 43-52.
60. Titunik, R. F. (2008). The Myth of the Macho Military. Polity, 40, 137-163. doi:10.1057/palgrave.polity.2300090
61. Turner, J. C. (1985). Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behavior. Advances in Group Processes, 2, 77-122.
62. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
63. Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & McGarty, C. A. (1994). Self and collective: Cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 454-463. doi:10.1177/0146167294205002
64. Van Dick, R., Christ, O., Stellmacher, J., Wagner, U., Ahlswede, O., Grubba, C., ... Tissington, P. A. (2004). Should I stay or should I go? Explaining turnover intentions with organizational identification and job satisfaction. British Journal of Management, 15, 351-360. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.2004.00424.x
65. Van Kleef, G. A., Steinel, W., van Knippenberg, D., Hogg, M. A., & Svensson, A. (2007). Group member prototypicality and intergroup negotiation: How one's standing in the group affects negotiation behaviour. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 46(1), 129-152.
66. Vandello, J. A., & Bosson, J. K. (2013). Hard won and easily lost: A review and synthesis of theory and research on precarious manhood. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(2), 101-113.
67. Vandello, J. A., Bosson, J. K., Cohen, D., Burnaford, R. M., & Weaver, J. R. (2008). Precarious manhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1325-1339. doi:10.1037/a0012453
68. Weaver, J. R., Vandello, J. A., Bosson, J. K., & Burnaford, R. M. (2010). The proof is in the punch: Gender differences in perceptions of action and aggression as components of manhood. Sex Roles, 62(3-4), 241-251.
69. Whyte, M. K. (1978). The status of women in preindustrial societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
70. Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological bulletin, 128(5), 699-727.
71. Woods, S. A., & Hampson, S. E. (2005). Measuring the Big Five with single items using a bipolar response scale. European Journal of Personality, 19, 373-390. doi:10.1002/per.542