Role rigidity: A problem of identity misclassification?

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 89, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 552-565

  Bosson, Jennifer K ^a   Prewitt Freilino, Jennifer L ^a   Taylor, Jenel N ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

Author keywords

Counterstereotypical behavior; Falsely accused deviants; Impression management; Role violations; Targets of stigma

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; REVIEW; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 27944431791     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.552     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. New York: Doubleday.
2. Archer, D. (1985). Social deviance. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology: Vol. 2. Special fields and applications (3rd ed., pp. 743-804). New York: Random House.
3. Aron, A., & Aron, E. N. (1986). Love and the expansion of self: Understanding attraction and satisfaction. New York: Harper & Row.
4. Barnett, V., & Lewis, T. (1994). Outliers in statistical data (3rd ed.). West Sussex, England: Wiley.
5. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
6. Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders. New York: Free Press.
7. Bem, D. (1967). Self-perception: An alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena. Psychological Review, 74, 183-200.
8. Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162.
9. Bem, S. L., & Lenney, E. (1976). Sex typing and the avoidance of cross-sex behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 48-54.
10. Bem, S. L., & Lewis, S. A. (1975). Sex role adaptability: One consequence of psychological androgyny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 634-643.
11. Best, R. (1983). We've all got scars: What boys and girls learn in elementary school. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
12. Blanton, H., & Christie, C. (2003). Deviance regulation: A theory of action and identity. Review of General Psychology, 7, 115-149.
13. Blinde, E. M., & Taub, D. E. (1992). Women athletes as falsely accused deviants: Managing the lesbian stigma. The Sociological Quarterly, 33, 521-533.
14. Bosson, J. K., Haymovitz, E. L., & Pinel, E. C. (2004). When saying and doing diverge: The effects of stereotype threat on self-reported versus nonverbal anxiety. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 247-255.
15. Bosson, J. K., & Prewitt-Freilino, J. L. (2002). [Men's open-ended accounts of self-conscious discomfort during violations of the antifemininity mandate]. Unpublished raw data.
16. Branscombe, N. R., Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Bertjan, D. (1999). The context and content of social identity threats. In N. Ellemers, R. Spears, & B. Doosje (Eds.), Social identity: Context, commitment, content (pp. 35-58). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
17. Brown, L. M. (1998). Ethnic stigma as a contextual experience: A possible selves perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 163-172.
18. Chirkov, V., Ryan, R. M., Kim, Y., & Kaplan, U. (2003). Differentiating autonomy from individualism and independence: A self-determination theory perspective on internalization of cultural orientations and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 97-110.
19. Chung, Y. B., & Katayama, M. (1996). Assessment of sexual orientation in lesbian/gay/bisexual studies. Journal of Homosexuality, 30, 49-62.
20. Cioffi, D. (2000). The looking-glass self revisited: Behavior choice and self-perception in the social token. In T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, & J. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 184-219). New York: Guilford Press.
21. Cohen, L. L., & Swim, J. K. (1995). The differential impact of gender ratios on women and men: Tokenism, self-confidence, and expectations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 876-884.
22. Costrich, N., Feinstein, J., Kidder, L., Maracek, J., & Pascale, L. (1975). When stereotypes hurt: Three studies of penalties for sex-role reversals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 520-530.
23. Crandall, C. S., Tsang, J. A., Harvey, R. D., & Britt, T. W. (2000). Group identity-based self-protective strategies: The stigma of race, gender, and garlic. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 355-381.
24. Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96, 608630.
25. Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology, Vol. 2 (4th ed., pp. 504-553). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
26. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York: Basic Books.
27. David, D. S., & Brannon, R. (Eds.). (1976). The forty-nine percent majority. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
28. Deaux, K., & LaFrance, M. (1998). Gender. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology, Vol. 2 (4th ed., pp. 788-827). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
29. Deaux, K., & Lewis, L. L. (1984). Structure of gender stereotypes: Inter-relationships among components and gender label. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 991-1004.
30. Deaux, K., & Major, B. (1987). Putting gender into context: An interactive model of gender-related behavior. Psychological Review, 94, 369-389.
31. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
32. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. In M. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31-49). New York: Plenum Press.
33. Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Niemann, Y. F., & Snider, K. (2001). Racial, ethnic, and cultural differences in responding to distinctiveness and discrimination on campus: Stigma and common group identity. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 167-188.
34. Dovidio, J. F., Major, B., & Crocker, J. (2000). Stigma: Introduction and overview. In T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, & J. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 1-28). New York: Guilford Press.
35. Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1327-1343.
36. Fagot, B. I. (1977). Consequences of moderate cross-gender behavior in preschool children. Child Development, 48, 902-907.
37. Feinman, S. (1981). Why is cross-sex-role behavior more approved for girls than for boys? A status characteristic approach. Sex Roles, 7, 289-300.
38. Frable, D. E. S. (1993). Dimensions of marginality: Distinctions among those who are different. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 370-380.
39. Frable, D. E. S., Blackstone, T., & Scherbaum, C. (1990). Marginal and mindful: Deviants in social interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 140-149.
40. Gilbert, L. A., Deutsch, C. J., & Strahan, R. F. (1978). Feminine and masculine dimensions of the typical, desirable, and ideal woman and man. Sex Roles, 4, 767-778.
41. Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
42. Gorer, G. (1948). The American people: A study in national character. New York: Norton.
43. Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1995). Toward a dual-motive depth psychology of self and social behavior. In M. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 73-99). New York: Plenum Press.
44. Grimmell, D. (1998). Effects of gender-role self-discrepancy on depressed mood. Sex Roles, 39, 203-214.
45. Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J. (1991). Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 895-910.
46. Herek, G. M. (1986). On heterosexual masculinity. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 563-577.
47. Higgins, E. T., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1985). Self-concept discrepancy theory: A psychological model for distinguishing among different aspects of depression and anxiety. Social Cognition, 3, 51-76.
48. Jones, E. E., Farina, A., Hastorf, A. H., Markus, H., Miller, D. T., & Scott, R. A. (1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. New York: Freeman & Company.
49. Kimmel, M. (1994). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame, and silence in the construction of gender identity. In M. Gergen & S. Davis (Eds.), Toward a new psychology of gender (pp. 223-242). New York: Routledge.
50. Kite, M. E., & Deaux, K. (1987). Gender belief systems: Homosexuality and the implicit inversion theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 83-96.
51. Kleck, R. E., & Strenta, A. (1980). Perceptions of the impact of negatively valued physical characteristics on social interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 861-873.
52. Lamb, M. E., & Roopnarine, J. L. (1979). Peer influences on sex-role development in preschoolers. Child'Development, 50, 1219-1222.
53. Laner, M. R., & Laner, R. H. (1979). Personal style or sexual preference: Why gay men are disliked. International Review of Modern Sociology, 9, 215-228.
54. Langlois, J. H., & Downs, A. C. (1980). Mothers, fathers, and peers as socialization agents of sex-typed play behaviors in young children. Child Development, 51, 1217-1247.
55. Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 518-530.
56. Lecky, P. (1945). Self-consistency: A theory of personality. Washington. DC: Island Press.
57. Lytton, H., & Romney, D. M. (1991). Parents' differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 267-296.
58. Martin, C. L. (1990). Attitudes and expectations about children with nontraditional and traditional gender roles. Sex Roles, 10, 445-456.
59. Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand.
60. McCreary, D. R. (1994). The male role and avoiding femininity. Sex Roles, 31, 517-531.
61. Michael, R. T., Laumann, E. O., & Gagnon, J. H. (1993). The number of sexual partners in the U. S. Unpublished manuscript.
62. Miller, C. T., & Major, B. (2000). Coping with stigma and prejudice. In T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, & J. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 243-272). New York: Guilford Press.
63. O'Neil, J. M., Helms, B., Gable, R., David, L., & Wrightsman, L. (1986). Gender-role conflict scale: College men's fear of femininity. Sex Roles, 14, 335-350.
64. O'Neil, J. M., & Nadeau, R. A. (1999). Men's gender role conflict, defense mechanisms, and self-protective defensive strategies: Explaining men's violence against women from a gender role socialization perspective. In M. Harway & J. M. O'Neil (Eds.), What causes men's violence against women? (pp. 89-116). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
65. Pinel, E. C. (1999). Stigma consciousness: The psychological legacy of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76. 114-128.
66. Pleck, J. (1995). The gender role strain paradigm: An update. In R. Levant & W. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 11-32). New York: Basic Books.
67. Pleck, J. H. (1981). The myth of masculinity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
68. Preston, K., & Stanley, K. (1987). "What's the worst thing...'?" Gender-directed insults. Sex Roles, 17, 209-219.
69. Quinn, D. M. (2005). Concealable versus conspicuous stigmatized identities. In S. Levin & C. van Laar (Eds.), Stigma and group inequality: Social psychological perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
70. Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
71. Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counter-stereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 629-645.
72. Rudman, L. A., & Fairchild, K. (2004). Reactions to counterstereotypic behavior: The role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 157-176.
73. Ryan, R. L., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
74. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 57, 1069-1081.
75. Saenz, D. S. (1994). Token status and problem-solving deficits: Detrimental effects of distinctiveness and performance monitoring. Social Cognition, 12, 61-74.
76. Sandnabba, N. K., & Ahlberg, C. (1999). Parents' attitudes and expectations about children's cross-gender behavior. Sex Roles, 40, 249-263.
77. Schlenker, B. R. (1980). Impression management: The self-concept, social identity, and interpersonal relationships. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
78. Schlenker, B. R., & Leary, M. R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A conceptualization and model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641-669.
79. Schmitt. M. T., & Branscombe, N. R. (2001). The good, the bad, and the manly: Threats to one's prototypicality and evaluations of fellow in-group members. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 510-517.
80. Secord, P. F., & Backman, C. W. (1965). An interpersonal approach to personality. In B. Maher (Ed.), Progress in experimental personality research (Vol. 2, pp. 91-125). New York: Academic Press.
81. Smart, L., & Wegner, D. M. (1999). Covering up what can't be seen: Concealable stigma and mental control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 474-486.
82. Smith, T. W. (1998). American sexual behavior: Trends, socio-demographic differences, and risk behavior (General Social Survey Topical Rep. No. 25). Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago.
83. Snyder, M. (1974). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 526-537.
84. Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Sociological methodology 1982 (pp. 290-312). Washington DC: American Sociological Association.
85. Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. Austin: University of Texas Press.
86. Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology: Social psychological studies of the self: Perspectives and programs. (Vol. 21, pp. 261-302). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
87. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
88. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
89. Steele, C. M., & Liu, T. J. (1983). Dissonance processes as self-affirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 5-19.
90. Stokes, R., & Hewitt, J. P. (1976). Aligning actions. American Sociological Review, 41, 838-849.
91. Swann, W. B., Jr. (1990). To be adored or to be known? The interplay of self-enhancement and self-verification. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Motivation and cognition (pp. 404-448). New York: Guilford Press.
92. Swann, W. B., Jr., & Hill, C. A. (1982). When our identities are mistaken: Reaffirming self-conceptions through social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 59-66.
93. Swann, W. B., Jr., Stein-Seroussi, A., & Giesler, R. B. (1992). Why people self-verify. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 392-401.
94. Swim, J. K., Ferguson, M. J., & Hyers, L. L. (1999). Avoiding stigma by association: Subtle prejudice against lesbians in the form of social distancing. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 21, 61-68.
95. Tedeschi, J. T., & Norman, N. (1985). Social power, self-presentation, and the self. In B. R. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and social life (pp. 293-322). New York: McGraw-Hill.
96. Thompson, E. H., Grisanti, C., & Pleck, J. H. (1985). Attitudes toward the male role and their correlates. Sex Roles, 13, 413-427.
97. Williams, C. L. (1989). Gender differences at work. Berkeley: University of California Press.
98. Williams, R., & Wittig, M. A. (1997). "I'm not a feminist, but...": Factors contributing to the discrepancy between pro-feminist orientation and feminist social identity. Sex Roles, 37, 885-904.