Kinetic Modeling in Positron Emission Tomography

Emission Tomography: The Fundamentals of PET and SPECT

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 499-540

  Morris, Evan D ^a   Endres, Christopher J ^b   Schmidt, Kathleen C ^c   Christian, Bradley T ^d   Muzic, Raymond F ^e   Fisher, Ronald E ^f  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

^d WRIGHT STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e Case Western Reserve University   (United States)

^f BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84942804487     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-012744482-6.50026-0     Document Type: Chapter

References (141)

1. Abi-Dargham A., Rodenhiser J., Printz D., Zea-Ponce Y., Gil R., Kegeles L.S., Weiss R., Cooper T.B., Mann J.J., Van Heertum R.L., Gorman J.M., Laruelle M. From the cover: Increased baseline occupancy of D2 receptors by dopamine in schizophrenia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2000, 97:8104-8109. 14.
2. Albelda S.M., Wiewrodt R., Zuckerman J.B. Gene therapy for lung disease: Hype or hope?. Ann. Intern. Med. 2000, 132(8):649-660.
3. Alpert N.M., Badgaiyan R., Fischman A.J. Detection of neuromodulatory changes in specific systems: Experimental design and strategy. NeuroImage 2002, 16(3):S53.
4. Alpert N.M., Bonab A., Fischman A.J. The simplified reference region model for parametric imaging: The domain of validity. J. Nucl. Med. 2000, 41(5 suppl.). 54P.
5. Aston J.A., Gunn R.N., Worsley K.J., Ma Y., Evans A.C., Dagher A. A statistical method for the analysis of positron emission tomography neuroreceptor ligand data. Neuroimage 2000, 12(3):245-256.
6. Bahn M.M., Huang S.C., Hawkins R.A., Satyamurthy N., Hoffman J.M., Barrio J.R., Mazziotta J.C., Phelps M.E. Models for in vivo kinetic interactions of dopamine D2-neuroreceptors and 3-(2'-[18F]fluoroethyl)spiperone examined with positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1989, 9:840-849.
7. Bankiewicz K.S., Eberling J.L., Kohutnicka M., Jagust W., Pivirotto P., Bringas J., Cunningham J., Budinger T.F., Harvey-White J. Convection-enhanced delivery of AAV vector in parkinsonian monkeys: In vivo detection of gene expression and restoration of dopaminergic function using pro-drug approach. Exp. Neurol. 2000, 164(1):2-14.
8. Berman M., Grundy S.M., Howard B.V. Lipoprotein Kinetics and Modeling 1982, Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
9. Berridge M.S., Adler L.P., Nelson A.D., Cassidy E.H., Muzic R.F., Bednarczyk E.M., Miraldi F. Measurement of human cerebral blood flow with [15O]butanol and positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1991, 11:707-715.
10. Breier A., Su T-P., Saunders R., Carson R.E., Kolachana B.S., de Bartolomeis A., Weinberger D.R., Weisenfeld N., Malhotra A.K., Eckelman W.C., Pickar D. Schizophrenia is associated with elevated amphetamine-induced synaptic dopamine concentrations: Evidence from a novel positron emission tomography method. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1997, 94:2569-2574.
11. Carlsson A., Lindqvist M. Effect of chlorpromazine or haloperidol on formation of 3-methoxytyramine and normetanephrine in mouse brain. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1963, 20:140-144.
12. Carson E.R., Cobelli C., Finkelstein L. The Mathematical Modeling of Metabolic and Endocrine Systems 1983, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
13. Carson R. Mathematical modeling and compartmental analysis. Nuclear Medicine Diagnosis and Therapy 1996, Thieme Medical Publishers, New York. J.C. Harbert, W.C. Eckelman, R.D. Neumann (Eds.).
14. Carson R.E., Breier A., de Bartolomeis A., Saunders R.C., Su T.P., Schmall B., Der M.G., Pickar D., Eckelman W.C. Quantification of amphetamine-induced changes in [11-C]-raclopride binding with continuous infusion. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1997, 17:437-447.
15. Carson R.E., Channing M.A., Blasberg R.G., Dunn B.B., Cohen R.M., Rice K.C., Herscovitch P. Comparison of bolus and infusion methods for receptor quantitation: application to [18-F]-cyclofoxy and positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1993, 13:24-42.
16. Chase T.N., Oh J.D., Blanchet P.J. Neostriatal mechanisms in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1998, 51(suppl 2):S30-S35.
17. Chen C.H., Muzic R.F., Nelson A.D., Adler L.P. Simultaneous recovery of size and radioactivity concentration of small spheroids with PET data. J. Nucl. Med. 1999, 40:118-130.
18. Christian B.T., Narayanan T.K., Shi B., Mukherjee J. Quantitation of striatal and extrastriatal D-2 dopamine receptors using PET imaging of [18F]fallypride in nonhuman primates. Synapse 2000, 38:71-79.
19. Cooper J.R., Roth R., Bloom F.E. The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology 1996, Oxford University Press, New York. 7th ed.
20. Crone C. Permeability of capillaries in various organs as determined by use of the indicator diffusion method. Acta Physiol. Scan. 1964, 58:292-305.
21. Cunningham V.J., Ashburner J., Byrne H., Jones T. Use of spectral analysis to obtain parametric images from dynamic PET studies. Quantification of Brain Function: Tracer Kinetics and Image Analysis in Brain PET 1993, 101-108. Elsevier Science Publishers, New York. K. Uemura, N.A. Lassen, T. Jones, I. Kanno (Eds.).
22. Cunningham V.J., Hume S.P., Price G.R., Ahier R.G., Cremer J.E., Jones A.K.P. Compartmental analysis of diprenorphine binding to opiate receptors in the rat in vivo and its comparison with equilibrium data in vitro. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1991, 11:1-9.
23. Cunningham V.J., Jones T. Spectral analysis of dynamic PET studies. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1993, 13:15-23.
24. Delforge J., Bottlaender M., Pappata S., Loch C., Syrota A. Absolute quantification by positron emission tomography of the endogenous ligand. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 2001, 21(5):613-630.
25. Delforge J., Syrota A., Bendriem B. Concept of reaction volume in the in vivo ligand-receptor model. J. Nucl. Med. 1996, 37:118-125.
26. Delforge J., Syrota A., Mazoyer B.M. Experimental design optimisation: Theory and application to estimation of receptor model parameters using dynamic positron emission tomography. Phys. Med. Biol. 1989, 34:419-435.
27. Delforge J., Syrota A., Mazoyer B.M. Identifiability analysis and parameter identification of an in vivo ligand-receptor model form PET data. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1990, 37:653-661.
28. Dienel G.A., Cruz N.F., Mori K., Holden J., Sokoloff L. Direct measurement of the λ of the lumped constant of the deoxyglucose method in rat brain: Determination of λ and lumped constant from tissue glucose concentration or equilibrium tissue: plasma distribution ratio for methylglucose. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1991, 11:25-34.
29. Dienel G.A., Nakanishi H., Cruz N.F., Sokoloff L. Determination of local brain glucose concentration from the brain:plasma methylglucose distribution ratio: Influence of glucose utilization rate. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1991, 11(suppl 2):S581.
30. Endres C.J., Carson R.E. Assessment of dynamic neurotransmitter changes with bolus or infusion delivery of neuroreceptor ligands. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1998, 18:1196-1210.
31. Endres C.J., Kolachana B.S., Saunders R.C., Su T., Weinberger D., Breier A., Eckelman W.C., Carson R.E. Kinetic modeling fo [11C]raclopride: Combined PET-microdialysis studies. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1997, 17:932-942.
32. Farde L., Eriksson L., Blomquist G., Halldin C. Kinetic analysis of central [11C]raclopride binding to D2-dopamine receptors studied by PET: A comparison to the equilibrium analysis. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1989, 9:696-708.
33. Farde L., Wiesel F.A., Stone-Elander S., Halldin C., Nordstrom A.L., Hall H., Sedvall G. D2 dopamine receptors in neurolepticnaive schizophrenic patients: A positron emission tomography study with [11C]raclopride. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1990, 47(3):213-219.
34. Feng D., Li X., Huang S.C. A new double modeling approach for dynamic cardiac PET studies using noise and spillover contaminated LV measurements. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1996, 43:319-327.
35. Fisher R.E., Morris E.D., Alpert N.M., Fischman A.J. In vivo imaging of neuromodulatory synaptic transmission using PET: A review of the relevant neurophysiology. Hum. Br. Map. 1995, 3:24-34.
36. Frey K.A., Hichwa R.D., Ehrenkaufer R.L.E., Agranoff B.W. Quantitative in vivo receptor binding, III. Tracer kinetic modeling of muscarinic cholinergic receptor binding. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1985, 82:6711-6715.
37. Friston K.J., Malizia A.L., Wilson S., Cunningham V.J., Jones T., Nutt D.J. Analysis of dynamic radioligand displacement or "activation" studies. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1997, 17:80-93.
38. Frost J.J., Douglass K.H., Mayber H.S., Dannals R.F., Links J.M., Wilson A.A., Ravert H.T., Crozier W.C., Wagner H.N. Multicompartmental analysis of [11C]-carfentanil binding to opiate receptors in humans measured by positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1989, 9:398-409.
39. Gjedde A., Wienhard K., Heiss W.-D., Kloster G., Diemer N.H., Herholz K., Pawlik G. Comparative regional analysis of 2-fluorodeoxyglucose and methylglucose uptake in brain of four stroke patients. With special reference to the regional estimation of the lumped constant. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1985, 5:163-178.
40. Gunn R.N., Lammertsma A.A., Hume S.P., Cunningham V.J. Parametric imaging of ligand-receptor binding in PET using a simplified reference region model. Neuroimage 1997, 6:279-287.
41. Hearon J.Z. Theorems on linear systems. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1963, 108:36-68.
42. Herrero P., Markham J., Bergmann S.R. Quantitation of myocardial blood flow with H2 15O and positron emission tomography: Assessment and error analysis of a mathematical approach. J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr. 1989, 13:862-873.
43. Herscovitch P., Markham J., Raichle M.E. Brain blood flow measured with intravenous H215O, I. Theory and error analysis. J. Nucl. Med. 1983, 24:782-789.
44. Hoekstra C.J., Paglianiti I., Hoekstra O.S., Smit E.F., Postmus P.E., Teule G.J., Lammertsma A.A. Monitoring response to therapy in cancer using [18F]-2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose and positron emission tomography: An overview of different analytical methods. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. 1999, 27(6):731-743.
45. Hoffman E.J., Huang S.C., Phelps M.E. Quantitation in poistron emission computed tomography, 1. Effect of object size. J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr. 1979, 3:299-308.
46. Hsu H., Alpert N.M., Christian B.T., Bonab A.A., Morris E., Fischman A.J. Noise properties of a graphical assay of receptor binding. J. Nucl. Med. 1997, 38. 204P.
47. Huang S.C., Bahn M.M., Barrio J.R., Hoffman J.M., Satyamurthy N., Hawkins R.A., Mazziotta J.C., Phelps M.E. A double-injection technique for the in vivo measurement of dopamine D2-receptor density in monkeys with 3-(2'-[18F]fluoroethyl)spiperone and dynamic positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1989, 9:850-858.
48. Huang S.C., Carson R.E., Hoffman E.J., Carson J., MacDonald N., Barrio J.R., Phelps M.E. Quantitative measurement of local cerebral blood flow in humans by positron computed tomography and 15O-water. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1983, 3:141-153.
49. Huang S.C., Dan-chu Y., Barrio J.R., Grafton S., Melega W.P., Hoffman J.M., Satyamurthy N., Mazziotta J.C., Phelps M.E. Kinetcs and modeling of L-6-[18F]Fluoro-DOPA in human positron emission tomographic studies. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1991, 11:898-913.
50. Huang S.C., Mahoney D.K., Phelps M.E. Quantitation in positron emission tomography, 8. Effects of nonlinear parameter estimation on functional images. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1986, 6:515-521.
51. Huang S.C., Phelps M.E. Principles of tracer kinetic modeling in positron emission tomography and autoradiography. Positron Emission Tomography and Autoradiography: Principles and Applications for the Brain and Heart 1986, 287-346. Raven Press, Amsterdam. M.E. Phelps, J. Mazziotta, H. Schelbert (Eds.).
52. Huang S.C., Phelps M.E., Hoffman E.J., Sideris K., Selin C.J., Kuhl D.E. Noninvasive determination of local cerebral metabolic rate of glucose in man. Am. J. Physiol. 1980, 238:E69-E82.
53. Hume S.P., Myers R., Bloomfield P.M., Opacka-Juffry J., Cremer J.E., Ahier R.G., Luthra S.K., Brooks D.J., Lammertsma A.A. Quantitation of carbon-11 labeled raclopride in rat striatum using positron emission tomography. Synapse 1992, 12:47-54.
54. Hustinx R., Eck S.L., Alavi A.J. Potential applications of PET imaging in developing novel cancer therapies. J. Nucl. Med. 1999, 40:995-1002.
55. Hustinx R., Eck S.L., Alavi A.J. Potential applications of PET imaging in developing novel cancer therapies. J. Nucl. Med. 1999, 40(6):995-1002.
56. Ichise M., Ballinger J.R., Golan H., Vines D., Luong A., Tsai S., Kung H.F. Noninvasive quantification of dopamine D2 receptors with iodine-123-IBF SPECT. J. Nucl. Med. 1996, 37(3):513-520.
57. Ichise M., Meyer J.H., Yonekura Y. An introduction to PET and SPECT neuroreceptor quantification models. J. Nucl. Med. 2001, 42(5):755-763.
58. Iida H., Kanno I., Miura S., Murakami M., Takahashi K., Uemura K. Error analysis of a quantitative cerebral blood flow measurement using H215O autoradiography and positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1986, 6:536-545.
59. Iida H., Kanno I., Miura S., Murakami M., Takahashi K., Uemura K. A determination of the regional brain/blood partition coefficient of water using dynamic positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1989, 9:874-885.
60. Iida H., Law I., Pakkenberg B., Krarup-Hansen A., Eberl S., Holm S., Hansen A.K., Gundersen H.J.G., Thomsen C., Svarer C., Ring P., Friberg L., Paulson O.B. Quantitation of regional cerebral blood flow corrected for partial volume effect using O-15 water and PET, I. Theory, error analysis, and stereological comparison. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 2000, 20:1237-1251.
61. Inoue O., Kobayashi K., Gee A. Changes in apparent rates of receptor binding in the intact brain in relation to the heterogeneity of reaction environments. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. 1999, 13(2):199-225.
62. Jacquez J.A. Compartmental Analysis in Biology and Medicine 1985, University of Michigan Press, New York. 2nd ed.
63. Kaplan H.I., Sadock B.J. Synopsis of Psychiatry 1998, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Ann Arbor. 8th ed.
64. Kawai R., Carson R.E., Dunn B., Newman A.H., Rice K.C., Blasberg R.G. Regional brain measurement of Bmax and KD with the opiate antagonist cyclofoxy: Equilibrium studies in the conscious rat. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1991, 11(4):529-544.
65. Koepp M.J., Gunn R.N., Lawrence A.D., Cunningham V.J., Dagher A., Jones T., Brooks D.J., Bench C.J., Grasby P.M. Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature 1998, 393:266-268.
66. Koeppe R.A., Frey K.A., Mulholland G.K., Kilbourn M.R., Buck A., Lee K.S., Kuhl D.E. [11C]tropanyl benzilate-binding to muscarinic cholinergic receptors: Methodology and kinetic modeling alternatives. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1994, 14:85-99.
67. Koeppe R.A., Holden J.E., Ip W.R. Performance comparison of parameter estimation techniques for the quantitation of local cerebral blood flow by dynamic positron computed tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1985, 5:224-234.
68. Koeppe R.A., Holthoff V.A., Frey K.A., Kilbourn M.R., Kuhl D.E. Compartmental analysis of [11C]flumazenil kinetics for the estimation of ligand transport rate and receptor distribution using positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood. Flow Metab. 1991, 11:735-744.
69. Kuwabara H., Evans A.C., Gjedde A. Michaelis-Menten constraints improved cerebral glucose metabolism and regional lumped constant measurements with [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1990, 10:180-189.
70. Lammertsma A.A., Bench C.J., Hume S.P., Osman S., Gunn K., Brooks D.J., Frackowiak R.J. Comparison of methods for analysis of clinical [11C]raclopride studies. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1996, 16:42-52.
71. Larisch R., Schommartz B., Vosberg H., Muller-Gartner H.W. Influence of motor activity on striatal dopamine release: A study using iodobenzamide and SPECT. Neuroimage 1999, 10:261-268.
72. Laruelle M. Imaging synaptic neurotransmission with in vivo binding competition techniques: A critical review. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 2000, 20(3):423-451.
73. Laruelle M., Abi-Dargham A., van Dyck C.H., Gil R., D'Souza C.D., Erdos J., McCance E., Rosenblatt W., Fingado C., Zoghbi S.S., Baldwin R.M., Seibyl J.P., Krystal J.H., Charney D.S., Innis R.B. Single photon emission computerized tomography imaing of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in drug-free schizophrenic subjects. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1996, 93:9235-9240. 17.
74. Laruelle M., Iyer R.N., Al-Tikriti M.S., Zea-Ponce Y., Malison R., Zoghbi S.S., Baldwin R.M., Kung H.F., Charney D.S., Hoffer P.B., Innis R.B., Bradberry C.W. Microdialysis and SPECT measurements of amphetamine-induced release in nonhuman primates. Synapse 1997, 25:1-14.
75. Laruelle M., Wallace E., Seibl P., Baldwin R.M., Zea-Ponce Y., Zoghbi S.S., Neumeyer J.L., Charney D.S., Hoffer P.B., Innis R.B. Graphical, kinetic, and equilibrium analyses of in vivo [123I]β-CIT binding to dopamine transporters in healthy human subjects. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1994, 14:982-994.
76. Law I., Iida H., Holm S., Nour S., Rostrup E., Svarer C., Paulson O.B. Quantitation of regional cerebral blood flow corrected for partial volume effect using O-15 water and PET, II. Normal values and gray matter blood flow response to visual activation. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 2000, 20:1252-1263.
77. Logan J. Graphical analysis of PET data applied to reversible and irreversible tracers. Nucl. Med. Biol. 2000, 27:661-670.
78. Logan J., Dewey S.L., Wolf A.P., Fowler J.S., Brodie J.D., Angrist B., Volkow N.D., Gatley S.J. Effects of endogenous dopamine on measures of [18F]-methylspiroperidol binding in the basal ganglia: Comparison of simulations and experimental results from PET studies in baboons. Synapse 1991, 9:195-207.
79. Logan J., Fowler J.S., Volkow N.D., Ding Y.S., Wang G.J., Alexoff D.L. A strategy for removing the bias in the graphical analysis method. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 2001, 21(3):307-320.
80. Logan J., Fowler J.S., Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Dewey S.L., MacGregor R.R., Schlyer D.J., Gatley S.J., Pappas N., King P., Hitzemann R., Vitkun S. Effects of blood flow on [11C]-raclopride binding in the brain: model simulations and kinetic analysis of PET data. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1994, 14:995-1010.
81. Logan J., Fowler J.S., Volkow N.D., Wang G.J., Ding Y.S., Alexoff D.L. Distribution volume ratios without blood sampling from graphical analysis of PET data. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1996, 16:834-840.
82. Logan J., Fowler J.S., Volkow N.D., Wolf A.P., Dewey S.L., Schlyer D.J., MacGregor R.R., Hitzemann R., Bendriem B., Gatley S.J., Christman D.R. Graphical analysis of reversible radioligand binding from time-activity measurements applied to [N-11C-methyl]-(-)-cocaine PET studies in human subjects. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1990, 10:740-747.
83. Lucignani G., Schmidt K., Moresco R.M., Stirano G., Colombo F., Sokoloff L., Fazio F. Measurement of regional cerebral glucose utilization with [18F]FDG and PET in heterogeneous tissues: theoretical considerations and practical procedure. J. Nucl. Med. 1993, 34:360-369.
84. MacLaren D.C., Gambhir S.S., Satyamurthy N., Barrio J.R., Sharfstein S., Toyokuni T., Wu L., Berk A.J., Cherry S.R., Phelps M.E., Herschman H.R. Repetitive, non-invasive imaging of the dopamine D2 receptor as a reporter gene in living animals. Gene Ther. 1999, 6(5):785-791.
85. MacLaren D.C., Toyokuni T., Cherry S.R., Barrio J.R., Phelps M.E., Herschman H.R., Gambhir S.S. PET imaging of transgene expression. Biol. Psych. 2000, 48:337-348.
86. Martin C.C., Jerabek P.A., Nickerson L.D.H., Fox P.T. Effect of partition coefficient, permeability surface product, and radioisotope on the signal-to-noise ratio in PET functional brain mapping: A computer simulation. Hum. Br. Map. 1999, 7(3):151-160.
87. Meltzer C.C., Leal J.P., Mayberg H.S., Wagner H.N., Frost J.J. Correction of PET data for partial volume effects in human cerebral cortex by MR imaging. J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr. 1990, 14:561-570.
88. Meltzer C.C., Zubieta J.K., Links J.M., Brakeman P., Stumpf M.J., Frost J.J. MR-based correction of brain PET measurements for heterogeneous gray matter radioactivity distribution. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1996, 16:650-658.
89. Meyer E. Simultaneous correction for tracer arrival delay and dispersion in CBF measurements by the H2O15 autoradiographic method and dynamic PET. J. Nucl. Med. 1989, 30:1069-1078.
90. Mintun M.A., Raichle M.E., Kilbourn M.R., Wooten G.F., Welch M.J. A quantitative model for the in vivo assessment of drug binding sites with positron emission tomography. Ann. Neurol. 1984, 15:217-227.
91. Morris E.D., Alpert N.M., Fischman A.J. Comparison of two compartmental models for describing receptor ligand kinetics and receptor availability in multiple injection PET studies. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1996, 16:841-853.
92. Morris E.D., Babich J.W., Alpert N.M., Bonab A.A., Livni E., Weise S., Hsu H., Christian B.T., Madras B.K., Fischman A.J. Quantification of dopamine transporter density in monkeys by dynamic PET imaging of multiple injections of 11C-CFT. Synapse 1996, 24:262-272.
93. Morris E.D., Bonab A.A., Alpert N.M., Fischman A.J., Madras B.K., Christian B.T. Concentration of dopamine transporters: To Bmax or not to Bmax?. Synapse 1999, 32(2):136-140.
94. Morris E.D., Chefer S.I., Lane M.A., Muzic R.F., Wong D.F., Dannals R.F., Matochik J.A., Bonab A.A., Villemagne V.L., Ingram D.K., Roth G.S., London E.D. Decline of D2 receptor binding with age, in rhesus monkeys: Importance of correction for simultaneous decline in striatal size. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1999, 19:218-229.
95. Morris E.D., Fisher R.E., Alpert N.M., Rauch S.L., Fischman A.J. In vivo imaging of neuromodulation using positron emission tomography: Optimal ligand characteristics and task length for detection of activation. Hum. Br. Map. 1995, 3:35-55.
96. Muller-Gartner H.W., Links J.M., Prince J.L., Bryan R.N., McVeigh E., Leal J.P., Davatzikos C., Frost J.J. Measurement of radiotracer concentration in brain gray matter using positron emission tomography: MRI-based correction for partial volume effects. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1992, 12:571-583.
97. Muzic R.F., Chen C.H., Nelson A.D. Method to account for scatter, spillover and partial volume effects in region of interest analysis in PET. IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. 1998, 17:202-213.
98. Muzic R.F., Cornelius S. COMKAT: Compartment model kinetic analysis tool. J. Nucl. Med. 2001, 42:636-645.
99. Muzic R.F., Nelson A.D., Miraldi F. Mathematical simplification of a PET blood flow model. IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. 1990, 9:172-176.
100. Muzic R.F., Nelson A.D., Miraldi F. Temporal alignment of tissue and arterial data and selection of integration start times for the H215O autoradiographic CBF model in PET. IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. 1993, 12:393-398.
101. Nelson A.D., Muzic R.F., Miraldi F., Muswick G.J., Leisure G.P., Voelker W. Continuous arterial positron monitor for quantitation in PET imaging. Am. J. Physiol. Imag. 1990, 5:84-88.
102. Nicoll R.A., Malenka R.C. Expression mechanisms underlying NMDA receptor-dependent long-term potentiation. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1999, 30(868):515-525.
103. Ohta S., Meyer E., Fujita H., Reutens D.C., Evans A., Gjedde A. Cerebral [15O]water clearance in humans determined by PET, I. Theory and normal values. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1996, 16:765-780.
104. Pajevic S., Daube-Witherspoon M.E., Bacharach S.L., Carson R.E. Noise characteristics of 3-D and 2-D PET images. IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. 1998, 17:9-23.
105. Pappata J., Dehaene S., Poline J.B., Gregoire M.C., Jobert A., Delforge J., Frouin V., Bottlaender M., Dolle F., Di Giamberardino L., Syrota A. In vivo detection of striatal dopamine release during reward: A PET study with [11C]Raclopride and a single dynamic scan approach. NeuroImage 2002, 16:1015-1027.
106. Patlak C., Blasberg R. Graphical evaluation of blood-to-brain transfer constants from multiple-time uptake data: Generalizations. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1985, 5:584-590.
107. Patlak C., Blasberg R., Fenstermacher J. Graphical evaluation of blood-to-brain transfer constants from multiple-time uptake data. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1983, 3:1-7.
108. Phelps M.E., Huang S.C., Hoffman E.J., Selin C.J., Sokoloff L., Kuhl D.E. Tomographic measurement of local cerebral glucose metabolic rate in humans with [18F]2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose: Validation of method. Ann. Neurol. 1979, 6:371-388.
109. Raichle M.E., Martin W.R.W., Herscovitch P., Mintun M.A., Markham J. Brain blood flow measured with intravenous H2O15, II. Implementation and validation. J. Nucl. Med. 1983, 24:790-798.
110. Reivich M., Alavi A., Wolf A., Fowler J., Russell J., Arnett C., MacGregor R.R., Shiue C.Y., Atkins H., Anand A., Dann R., Greenberg J.H. Glucose metabolic rate kinetic model parameter determination in humans: The lumped constants and rate constants for [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose and [11C]deoxyglucose. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1985, 5:179-192.
111. Reivich M., Kuhl D., Wolf A., Greenberg J., Phelps M., Ido T., Casella V., Fowler J., Hoffman E., Alavi A., Som P., Sokoloff L. The [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose method for the measurement of local cerebral glucose utilization in man. Circ. Res. 1979, 44:127-137.
112. Renkin E.M. Transport of potassium-42 from blood to tissue in isolated mammalian skeletal muscles. Am. J. Physiol. 1959, 197:1205-1210.
113. Rousset O.G., Ma Y., Evans A.C. Correction for partial volume effects in PET: Principle and validation. J. Nucl. Med. 1998, 39:904-911.
114. Schmidt K. Which linear compartmental systems can be analyzed by spectral analysis of PET output data summed over all compartments?. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1999, 19:560-569.
115. Schmidt K., Lucignani G., Moresco R.M., Rizzo G., Gilardi M.C., Messa C., Colombo F., Fazio F., Sokoloff L. Errors introduced by tissue heterogeneity in estimation of local cerebral glucose utilization with current kinetic models of the [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose method. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1992, 12:823-834.
116. Schmidt K., Mies G., Sokoloff L. Model of kinetic behavior of deoxyglucose in heterogeneous tissues in brain: a reinterpretation of the significance of parameters fitted to homogeneous tissue models. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1991, 11:10-24.
117. Schmidt K., Sokoloff L. A computationally efficient algorithm for determining regional cerebral blood flow in heterogeneous tissues by positron emission tomography. IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. 2001, 20(7):618-632.
118. Schmidt K., Sokoloff L., Kety S.S. Effects of tissue heterogeneity on estimates of regional cerebral blood flow. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1989, 9(suppl. 1):S242.
119. Schommartz B., Larisch R., Vosberg H., Muller-Gartner H.W. Striatal dopamine release in reading and writing measured with [123I]iodobenzamide and single photon emission computed tomography in right handed human subjects. Neurosci. Lett. 2000, 292(1):37-40.
120. Schuier F., Orzi F., Suda S., Lucignani G., Kennedy C., Sokoloff L. Influence of plasma glucose concentration on lumped constant of the deoxyglucose method: Effects of hyperglycemia in the rat. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1990, 10:765-773.
121. Schultz W. Dopamine neurons and their role in reward mechanisms. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 1997, 7:191-197.
122. Shepherd G.M. The Synaptic Organization of the Brain 1998, Oxford University Press, Baltimore. 4th ed.
123. Slifstein M., Laruelle M. Effects of statistical noise on graphic analysis of PET neuroreceptor studies. J. Nucl. Med. 2000, 41(12):2083-2088.
124. Soares J.C., Innis R.B. Neurochemical brain imaging investigations of schizophrenia. Biol. Psych. 1999, 46:600-615.
125. Sokoloff L. Relation between physiological function and energy metabolism in the central nervous system. J. Neurochem. 1977, 29:13-26.
126. Sokoloff L., Reivich M., Kennedy C., DesRosier M.H., Patlak C.S., Pettigrew K.D., Sakurada O., Shinohara M. The [14C]deoxyglucose method for the measurement of local cerebral glucose utilization: theory, procedure, and normal values in the conscious and anesthetized albino rat. J. Neurochem. 1977, 28:897-916.
127. Sorenson J.A., Phelps M.E. Physics in Nuclear Medicine 1987, Grune and Stratton, New York. 2nd ed.
128. Squire L.R., Kandel E.R. Memory: From Mind to Molecules 1999, Scientific American Library, Orlando, FL.
129. Strul D., Bendriem B. Robustness of anatomically guided pixel-by-pixel algorithms for partial volume effect correction in positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1999, 19:547-559.
130. Suda S., Shinohara M., Miyaoka M., Lucignani G., Kennedy C., Sokoloff L. The lumped constant of the deoxyglucose method in hypoglycemia: Effects of moderate hypoglycemia on local cerebral glucose utilization in the rat. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1990, 10:499-509.
131. Tjuvajev J.G., Avril N., Oku T., Sasajima T., Miyagawa T., Joshi R., Safer M., Beattie B., DiResta G., Daghighian F., Augensen F., Koutcher J., Zweit J., Humm J., Larson S.M., Finn R., Blasberg R. Imaging herpes virus thymidine kinase gene transfer and expression by positron emission tomography. Cancer Res. 1998, 58:4333-4341.
132. Tsukada H., Nishiyama S., Kakiuchi T., Ohba H., Sato K., Harada N. Is synaptic dopamine concentration the exclusive factor which alters the in vivo binding of [11C]raclopride? PET studies combined with microdialysis in conscious monkeys. Br. Res. 1999, 841(1-2):160-169.
133. Turkheimer F., Moresco R.M., Lucignani G., Sokoloff L., Fazio F., Schmidt K. The use of spectral analysis to determine regional cerebral glucose utilization with positron emission tomography and [18F]Fluorodeoxyglucose: Theory, implementation and optimization procedures. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1994, 14:406-422.
134. Turkheimer F., Sokoloff L., Bertoldo A., Lucignani G., Reivich M., Jaggi J.L., Schmidt K. Estimation of component and parameter distributions in spectral analysis. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1998, 18:1211-1222.
135. Videen T.O., Perlmutter J.S., Mintun M.A., Raichle M.E. Regional correction of positron emission tomography data for the effects of cerebral atrophy. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1988, 8:662-670.
136. Watabe H., Endres C.J., Breier A., Schmall B., Eckelman W.C., Carson R.E. Measurement of dopamine release with continuous infusion of [11C]raclopride: optimization and signal-to-noise consideration. J. Nucl. Med. 2000, 41(3):522-530.
137. Watabe H., Itoh M., Cunningham V., Lammertsma A.A., Bloomfield P., Mejia M., Fujiwara T., Jones A.K., Jones T., Nakamura T. Noninvasive quantification of rCBF using positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1996, 16(2):311-319.
138. Wong D.F., Wagner H.N.J., Tune L.E., Dannals R.F., Pearlson G.D., Links J.M., Tamminga C.A., Broussolle E.P., Ravert H.T., Wilson A.A., et al. Positron emission tomography reveals elevated D2 dopamine receptors in drug-naïve schizophrenics. Science 1986, 234:1558-1563.
139. Yu Y., Annala A.J., Barrio J.R., Toyokuni T., Satyamurthy N., Namavari M., Cherry S.R., Phelps M.E., Herschman H.R., Gambhir S.S. Quantification of target gene expression by imaging reporter gene expression in living animals. Nature Med. 2000, 6:933-937.
140. Zhou Q., Xiao M.Y., Nicoll R.A. Contribution of cytoskeleton to the internalization of AMPA receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2001, 98:1261-1266. 3.
141. Zubieta J.-K., Koeppe R.A., Mulholland G.K., Kuhl D.E., Frey K.A. Quantification of muscarinic cholinergic receptors with [11C]NMPB and positron emission tomography: Method development and differentiation of tracer delivery from receptor binding. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1998, 18:619-631.