Arteriosclerosis and vascular calcification: Causes, clinical assessment and therapy

European Journal of Clinical Investigation

Volumn 45, Issue 9, 2015, Pages 976-985

  Tölle, Markus ^a   Reshetnik, Alexander ^a   Schuchardt, Mirjam ^a   Höhne, Matthias ^b   van der Giet, Markus ^a  

^a CHARITÉ UNIVERSITÄTSMEDIZIN BERLIN   (Germany)

^b Novartis Pharma AG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Arterial stiffness; Arteriosclerosis; Calcification; Cardiovascular disease; Chronic kidney disease; Vascular mineralization

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN 1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CALCITRIOL; CHELATING AGENT; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; METFORMIN; PARICALCITOL; BONE DENSITY CONSERVATION AGENT; CALCIMIMETIC AGENT; PHOSPHATE INTAKE;

ARTERIAL STIFFNESS; ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD VESSEL CALCIFICATION; CARDIOVASCULAR MORBIDITY; CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); DISEASE ASSOCIATION; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT; HUMAN; IMAGING; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; AGING; CALCINOSIS; CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE; COMPLICATION; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET THERAPY; INTERVENTIONAL ULTRASONOGRAPHY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY; PHOSPHATE INTAKE; PHOTON ABSORPTIOMETRY; PROCEDURES; VASCULAR CALCIFICATION;

ABSORPTIOMETRY, PHOTON; AGING; ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; BONE DENSITY CONSERVATION AGENTS; CALCIMIMETIC AGENTS; CALCIPHYLAXIS; DIABETES COMPLICATIONS; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET THERAPY; DIPHOSPHONATES; HUMANS; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL-COA REDUCTASE INHIBITORS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PHOSPHORUS, DIETARY; RENAL INSUFFICIENCY, CHRONIC; TOMOGRAPHY, OPTICAL COHERENCE; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED; ULTRASONOGRAPHY, INTERVENTIONAL; VASCULAR CALCIFICATION;

EID: 84939562561     PISSN: 00142972     EISSN: 13652362     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/eci.12493     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. Fishbein GA, Fishbein MC. Arteriosclerosis: rethinking the current classification. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2009;133:1309-16.
2. Ross R. Atherosclerosis - an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med 1999;340:115-26.
3. Otsuka F, Sakakura K, Yahagi K, Joner M, Virmani R. Has our understanding of calcification in human coronary atherosclerosis progressed? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2014;34:724-36.
4. London GM, Guerin AP, Marchais SJ, Metivier F, Pannier B, Adda H. Arterial media calcification in end-stage renal disease: impact on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18:1731-40.
5. Shroff RC, McNair R, Skepper JN, Figg N, Schurgers LJ, Deanfield J et al. Chronic mineral dysregulation promotes vascular smooth muscle cell adaptation and extracellular matrix calcification. J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;21:103-12.
6. Leopold JA. Vascular calcification: mechanisms of vascular smooth muscle cell calcification. Trends Cardiovasc Med 2015;25:267-74.
7. Lei Y, Sinha A, Nosoudi N, Grover A, Vyavahare N. Hydroxyapatite and calcified elastin induce osteoblast-like differentiation in rat aortic smooth muscle cells. Exp Cell Res 2014;323:198-208.
8. Byon CH, Javed A, Dai Q, Kappes JC, Clemens TL, Darley-Usmar VM et al. Oxidative stress induces vascular calcification through modulation of the osteogenic transcription factor Runx2 by AKT signaling. J Biol Chem 2008;283:15319-27.
9. Zhao MM, Xu MJ, Cai Y, Zhao G, Guan Y, Kong W et al. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species promote p65 nuclear translocation mediating high-phosphate-induced vascular calcification in vitro and in vivo. Kidney Int 2011;79:1071-9.
10. Zoccali C, Bolignano D, D'Arrigo G, Dekker FW, Fliser D, Heine GH et al. Validity of vascular calcification as a screening tool and as a surrogate end point in clinical research. Hypertension 2015;66:3-9.
11. Zoccali C, London G. Con: vascular calcification is a surrogate marker, but not the cause of ongoing vascular disease, and it is not a treatment target in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2015;30:352-7.
12. Abdelmalek JA, Stark P, Walther CP, Ix JH, Rifkin DE. Associations between coronary calcification on chest radiographs and mortality in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2012;60:990-7.
13. Mönckeberg J. Über die reine Mediaverkalkung der Extremitätenarterien und ihr Verhalten zur Arteriosklerose. Virchows Arch Pathol Anat 1902;171:141-67.
14. Schiffrin EL, Lipman ML, Mann JF. Chronic kidney disease: effects on the cardiovascular system. Circulation 2007;116:85-97.
15. Cianciolo G, Donati G, La Manna G, Ferri A, Cuna V, Ubaldi G et al. The cardiovascular burden of end-stage renal disease patients. Minerva Urol Nefrol 2010;62:51-66.
16. Marco MP, Craver L, Betriu A, Belart M, Fibla J, Fernandez E. Higher impact of mineral metabolism on cardiovascular mortality in a European hemodialysis population. Kidney Int Suppl 2003;S111-4.
17. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention and treatment of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl 2009;76:S44-S49.
18. Fang Y, Ginsberg C, Sugatani T, Monier-Faugere MC, Malluche H, Hruska KA. Early chronic kidney disease-mineral bone disorder stimulates vascular calcification. Kidney Int 2014;85:142-50.
19. Megnien JL, Simon A, Lemariey M, Plainfosse MC, Levenson J. Hypertension promotes coronary calcium deposit in asymptomatic men. Hypertension 1996;27:949-54.
20. Benetos A, Adamopoulos C, Bureau JM, Temmar M, Labat C, Bean K et al. Determinants of accelerated progression of arterial stiffness in normotensive subjects and in treated hypertensive subjects over a 6-year period. Circulation 2002;105:1202-7.
21. Najjar SS, Scuteri A, Lakatta EG. Arterial aging: is it an immutable cardiovascular risk factor? Hypertension 2005;46:454-62.
22. Virchow R. Cellular Pathology as based upon physiological and pathophysiological histology. 1858.
23. Thompson RC, Allam AH, Lombardi GP, Wann LS, Sutherland ML, Sutherland JD et al. Atherosclerosis across 4000 years of human history: the Horus study of four ancient populations. Lancet 2013;381:1211-22.
24. Lemogoum D, Ngatchou W, Janssen C, Leeman M, Van Bortel L, Boutouyrie P et al. Effects of hunter-gatherer subsistence mode on arterial distensibility in Cameroonian pygmies. Hypertension 2012;60:123-8.
25. De Sandre-Giovannoli A, Bernard R, Cau P, Navarro C, Amiel J, Boccaccio I et al. Lamin a truncation in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria. Science 2003;300:2055.
26. Hirschl M, Francesconi M, Hirschl MM. Moenckeberg media sclerosis: clinical aspects in diabetic patients. Vasa 1991;20:216-21.
27. Al-Aly Z. Medial vascular calcification in diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease: the role of inflammation. Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets 2007;7:1-6.
28. Drueke TB, Massy ZA. Role of vitamin D in vascular calcification: bad guy or good guy? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2012;27:1704-7.
29. Saifan C, Saad M, El-Charabaty E, El-Sayegh S. Warfarin-induced calciphylaxis: a case report and review of literature. Int J Gen Med 2013;6:665-9.
30. Liu J, Musani SK, Bidulescu A, Carr JJ, Wilson JG, Taylor HA et al. Fatty liver, abdominal adipose tissue and atherosclerotic calcification in African Americans: the Jackson Heart Study. Atherosclerosis 2012;224:521-5.
31. Demer LL, Tintut Y. Inflammatory, metabolic, and genetic mechanisms of vascular calcification. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2014;34:715-23.
32. Hofmann Bowman MA, McNally EM. Genetic pathways of vascular calcification. Trends Cardiovasc Med 2012;22:93-8.
33. St Hilaire C, Ziegler SG, Markello TC, Brusco A, Groden C, Gill F et al. NT5E mutations and arterial calcifications. N Engl J Med 2011;364:432-42.
34. Rutsch F, Ruf N, Vaingankar S, Toliat MR, Suk A, Hohne W et al. Mutations in ENPP1 are associated with 'idiopathic' infantile arterial calcification. Nat Genet 2003;34:379-81.
35. Wang C, Li Y, Shi L, Ren J, Patti M, Wang T et al. Mutations in SLC20A2 link familial idiopathic basal ganglia calcification with phosphate homeostasis. Nat Genet 2012;44:254-6.
36. Leftheriotis G, Omarjee L, Le Saux O, Henrion D, Abraham P, Prunier F et al. The vascular phenotype in Pseudoxanthoma elasticum and related disorders: contribution of a genetic disease to the understanding of vascular calcification. Front Genet 2013;4:4.
37. Gauthier-Bastien A, Ung RV, Lariviere R, Mac-Way F, Lebel M, Agharazii M. Vascular remodeling and media calcification increases arterial stiffness in chronic kidney disease. Clin Exp Hypertens 2014;36:173-80.
38. Tsao CW, Pencina KM, Massaro JM, Benjamin EJ, Levy D, Vasan RS et al. Cross-sectional relations of arterial stiffness, pressure pulsatility, wave reflection, and arterial calcification. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2014;34:2495-500.
39. Dao HH, Essalihi R, Bouvet C, Moreau P. Evolution and modulation of age-related medial elastocalcinosis: impact on large artery stiffness and isolated systolic hypertension. Cardiovasc Res 2005;66:307-17.
40. McEniery CM, Yasmin Hall IR, Qasem A, Wilkinson IB, Cockcroft JR et al. Normal vascular aging: differential effects on wave reflection and aortic pulse wave velocity: the Anglo-Cardiff Collaborative Trial (ACCT). J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;46:1753-60.
41. Maki-Petaja KM, Hall FC, Booth AD, Wallace SM, Yasmin Bearcroft PW et al. Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with increased aortic pulse-wave velocity, which is reduced by anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha therapy. Circulation 2006;114:1185-92.
42. Zhang M, Bai Y, Ye P, Luo L, Xiao W, Wu H et al. Type 2 diabetes is associated with increased pulse wave velocity measured at different sites of the arterial system but not augmentation index in a Chinese population. Clin Cardiol 2011;34:622-7.
43. Kanbay M, Afsar B, Gusbeth-Tatomir P, Covic A. Arterial stiffness in dialysis patients: where are we now? Int Urol Nephrol 2010;42:741-52.
44. Lilly SM, Qasim AN, Mulvey CK, Churchill TW, Reilly MP, Eraso LH. Non-compressible arterial disease and the risk of coronary calcification in type-2 diabetes. Atherosclerosis 2013;230:17-22.
45. Ix JH, Miller RG, Criqui MH, Orchard TJ. Test characteristics of the ankle-brachial index and ankle-brachial difference for medial arterial calcification on X-ray in type 1 diabetes. J Vasc Surg 2012;56:721-7.
46. Ix JH, Criqui MH. Epidemiology and diagnosis of peripheral arterial disease in patients with chronic kidney disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2008;15:378-83.
47. McEniery CM, McDonnell BJ, So A, Aitken S, Bolton CE, Munnery M et al. Aortic calcification is associated with aortic stiffness and isolated systolic hypertension in healthy individuals. Hypertension 2009;53:524-31.
48. Latham RD, Westerhof N, Sipkema P, Rubal BJ, Reuderink P, Murgo JP. Regional wave travel and reflections along the human aorta: a study with six simultaneous micromanometric pressures. Circulation 1985;72:1257-69.
49. Laurent S, Cockcroft J, Van Bortel L, Boutouyrie P, Giannattasio C, Hayoz D et al. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness: methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J 2006;27:2588-605.
50. Roos CJ, Auger D, Djaberi R, de Koning EJ, Rabelink TJ, Pereira AM et al. Relationship between left ventricular diastolic function and arterial stiffness in asymptomatic patients with diabetes mellitus. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2013;29:609-16.
51. Sutton-Tyrrell K, Najjar SS, Boudreau RM, Venkitachalam L, Kupelian V, Simonsick EM et al. Elevated aortic pulse wave velocity, a marker of arterial stiffness, predicts cardiovascular events in well-functioning older adults. Circulation 2005;111:3384-90.
52. Terai M, Ohishi M, Ito N, Takagi T, Tatara Y, Kaibe M et al. Comparison of arterial functional evaluations as a predictor of cardiovascular events in hypertensive patients: the Non-Invasive Atherosclerotic Evaluation in Hypertension (NOAH) study. Hypertens Res 2008;31:1135-45.
53. Wang KL, Cheng HM, Sung SH, Chuang SY, Li CH, Spurgeon HA et al. Wave reflection and arterial stiffness in the prediction of 15-year all-cause and cardiovascular mortalities: a community-based study. Hypertension 2010;55:799-805.
54. Zoungas S, Cameron JD, Kerr PG, Wolfe R, Muske C, McNeil JJ et al. Association of carotid intima-medial thickness and indices of arterial stiffness with cardiovascular disease outcomes in CKD. Am J Kidney Dis 2007;50:622-30.
55. Pannier B, Guerin AP, Marchais SJ, Safar ME, London GM. Stiffness of capacitive and conduit arteries: prognostic significance for end-stage renal disease patients. Hypertension 2005;45:592-6.
56. Tardy Y, Meister JJ, Perret F, Brunner HR, Arditi M. Non-invasive estimate of the mechanical properties of peripheral arteries from ultrasonic and photoplethysmographic measurements. Clin Phys Physiol Meas 1991;12:39-54.
57. Scuteri A, Morrell CH, Orru M, Strait JB, Tarasov KV, Ferreli LA et al. Longitudinal perspective on the conundrum of central arterial stiffness, blood pressure, and aging. Hypertension 2014;64:1219-27.
58. Blacher J, Guerin AP, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, Safar ME, London GM. Impact of aortic stiffness on survival in end-stage renal disease. Circulation 1999;99:2434-9.
59. LeBoeuf A, Mac-Way F, Utescu MS, De Serres SA, Douville P, Desmeules S et al. Impact of dialysate calcium concentration on the progression of aortic stiffness in patients on haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2011;26:3695-701.
60. Lindbom A. Arteriosclerosis and arterial thrombosis in the lower limb; a roentgenological study. Acta Radiol Suppl 1950;80:1-80.
61. Schlieper G, Aretz A, Verberckmoes SC, Kruger T, Behets GJ, Ghadimi R et al. Ultrastructural analysis of vascular calcifications in uremia. J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;21:689-96.
62. Kauppila LI, Polak JF, Cupples LA, Hannan MT, Kiel DP, Wilson PW. New indices to classify location, severity and progression of calcific lesions in the abdominal aorta: a 25-year follow-up study. Atherosclerosis 1997;132:245-50.
63. Duhn V, D'Orsi ET, Johnson S, D'Orsi CJ, Adams AL, O'Neill WC. Breast arterial calcification: a marker of medial vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2011;6:377-82.
64. Schousboe JT, Wilson KE, Kiel DP. Detection of abdominal aortic calcification with lateral spine imaging using DXA. J Clin Densitom 2006;9:302-8.
65. Knez A, Becker C, Becker A, Leber A, White C, Reiser M et al. Determination of coronary calcium with multi-slice spiral computed tomography: a comparative study with electron-beam CT. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2002;18:295-303.
66. Agatston AS, Janowitz WR, Hildner FJ, Zusmer NR, Viamonte M Jr, Detrano R. Quantification of coronary artery calcium using ultrafast computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol 1990;15:827-32.
67. de Rotte AA, Koning W, Truijman MT, den Hartog AG, Bovens SM, Vink A et al. Seven-tesla magnetic resonance imaging of atherosclerotic plaque in the significantly stenosed carotid artery: a feasibility study. Invest Radiol 2014;49:749-57.
68. Dangas GD, Maehara A, Evrard SM, Sartori S, Li JR, Chirumamilla AP et al. Coronary artery calcification is inversely related to body morphology in patients with significant coronary artery disease: a three-dimensional intravascular ultrasound study. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2014;15:201-9.
69. Mehanna E, Bezerra HG, Prabhu D, Brandt E, Chamie D, Yamamoto H et al. Volumetric characterization of human coronary calcification by frequency-domain optical coherence tomography. Circ J 2013;77:2334-40.
70. Budoff MJ, Shaw LJ, Liu ST, Weinstein SR, Mosler TP, Tseng PH et al. Long-term prognosis associated with coronary calcification: observations from a registry of 25, 253 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;49:1860-70.
71. Matsuoka M, Iseki K, Tamashiro M, Fujimoto N, Higa N, Touma T et al. Impact of high coronary artery calcification score (CACS) on survival in patients on chronic hemodialysis. Clin Exp Nephrol 2004;8:54-8.
72. Rennenberg RJ, Kessels AG, Schurgers LJ, van Engelshoven JM, de Leeuw PW, Kroon AA. Vascular calcifications as a marker of increased cardiovascular risk: a meta-analysis. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2009;5:185-97.
73. Gorriz JL, Molina P, Cerveron MJ, Vila R, Bover J, Nieto J et al. Vascular calcification in patients with nondialysis CKD over 3 years. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2015;10:654-66.
74. Cardoso CR, Ferreira MT, Leite NC, Salles GF. Prognostic impact of aortic stiffness in high-risk type 2 diabetic patients: the Rio deJaneiro Type 2 Diabetes Cohort Study. Diabetes Care 2013;36:3772-8.
75. Blacher J, Safar ME, Pannier B, Guerin AP, Marchais SJ, London GM. Prognostic significance of arterial stiffness measurements in end-stage renal disease patients. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2002;11:629-34.
76. Rattazzi M, Bertacco E, Puato M, Faggin E, Pauletto P. Hypertension and vascular calcification: a vicious cycle? J Hypertens 2012;30:1885-93.
77. Lomashvili KA, Monier-Faugere MC, Wang X, Malluche HH, O'Neill WC. Effect of bisphosphonates on vascular calcification and bone metabolism in experimental renal failure. Kidney Int 2009;75:617-25.
78. Ariyoshi T, Eishi K, Sakamoto I, Matsukuma S, Odate T. Effect of etidronic acid on arterial calcification in dialysis patients. Clin Drug Invest 2006;26:215-22.
79. Tanko LB, Qin G, Alexandersen P, Bagger YZ, Christiansen C. Effective doses of ibandronate do not influence the 3-year progression of aortic calcification in elderly osteoporotic women. Osteoporos Int 2005;16:184-90.
80. Toussaint ND, Lau KK, Strauss BJ, Polkinghorne KR, Kerr PG. Effect of alendronate on vascular calcification in CKD stages 3 and 4: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Am J Kidney Dis 2010;56:57-68.
81. Vouri SM, Taggart Blaszczyk A. Bisphosphonate use in patients undergoing dialysis. Consult Pharm 2013;28:738-41.
82. Finch JL, Lee DH, Liapis H, Ritter C, Zhang S, Suarez E et al. Phosphate restriction significantly reduces mortality in uremic rats with established vascular calcification. Kidney Int 2013;84:1145-53.
83. Lau WL, Leaf EM, Hu MC, Takeno MM, Kuro-o M, Moe OW et al. Vitamin D receptor agonists increase klotho and osteopontin while decreasing aortic calcification in mice with chronic kidney disease fed a high phosphate diet. Kidney Int 2012;82:1261-70.
84. Torres PA, De Broe M. Calcium-sensing receptor, calcimimetics, and cardiovascular calcifications in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2012;82:19-25.
85. Raggi P, Chertow GM, Torres PU, Csiky B, Naso A, Nossuli K et al. The ADVANCE study: a randomized study to evaluate the effects of cinacalcet plus low-dose vitamin D on vascular calcification in patients on hemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2011;26:1327-39.
86. Carney EF. Chronic kidney disease: no significant effect of cinacalcet on cardiovascular outcomes in patients undergoing dialysis-EVOLVE results. Nature reviews. Nephrology 2013;9:4.
87. Essalihi R, Ouellette V, Dao HH, McKee MD, Moreau P. Phenotypic modulation of vascular smooth muscle cells during medial arterial calcification: a role for endothelin? J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2004;44(Suppl. 1):S147-50.
88. Iijima K, Ito Y, Son BK, Akishita M, Ouchi Y. Pravastatin and olmesartan synergistically ameliorate renal failure-induced vascular calcification. J Atheroscler Thromb 2014;21:917-29.
89. Achenbach S, Ropers D, Pohle K, Leber A, Thilo C, Knez A et al. Influence of lipid-lowering therapy on the progression of coronary artery calcification: a prospective evaluation. Circulation 2002;106:1077-82.
90. Helas S, Goettsch C, Schoppet M, Zeitz U, Hempel U, Morawietz H et al. Inhibition of receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand by denosumab attenuates vascular calcium deposition in mice. Am J Pathol 2009;175:473-8.
91. Morony S, Tintut Y, Zhang Z, Cattley RC, Van G, Dwyer D et al. Osteoprotegerin inhibits vascular calcification without affecting atherosclerosis in ldlr(-/-) mice. Circulation 2008;117:411-20.
92. Shao JS, Cheng SL, Charlton-Kachigian N, Loewy AP, Towler DA. Teriparatide (human parathyroid hormone (1-34)) inhibits osteogenic vascular calcification in diabetic low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice. J Biol Chem 2003;278:50195-202.
93. Chen NX, O'Neill KD, Chen X, Kiattisunthorn K, Gattone VH, Moe SM. Activation of arterial matrix metalloproteinases leads to vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol 2011;34:211-9.
94. Freise C, Querfeld U. Inhibition of vascular calcification by block of intermediate conductance calcium-activated potassium channels with TRAM-34. Pharmacol Res 2014;85:6-14.
95. Liu Y, Zhou YB, Zhang GG, Cai Y, Duan XH, Teng X et al. Cortistatin attenuates vascular calcification in rats. Regul Pept 2010;159:35-43.
96. Mao Y, Tokudome T, Kishimoto I. Ghrelin as a treatment for cardiovascular diseases. Hypertension 2014;64:450-4.
97. Chang JR, Duan XH, Zhang BH, Teng X, Zhou YB, Liu Y et al. Intermedin1-53 attenuates vascular smooth muscle cell calcification by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress via cyclic adenosine monophosphate/protein kinase A pathway. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2013;238:1136-46.
98. Cao X, Li H, Tao H, Wu N, Yu L, Zhang D et al. Metformin inhibits vascular calcification in female rat aortic smooth muscle cells via the AMPK-eNOS-NO pathway. Endocrinology 2013;154:3680-9.
99. Brodeur MR, Bouvet C, Bouchard S, Moreau S, Leblond J, Deblois D et al. Reduction of advanced-glycation end products levels and inhibition of RAGE signaling decreases rat vascular calcification induced by diabetes. PLoS ONE 2014;9:e85922.
100. Lei Y, Grover A, Sinha A, Vyavahare N. Efficacy of reversal of aortic calcification by chelating agents. Calcif Tissue Int 2013;93:426-35.
101. Shimomura A, Matsui I, Hamano T, Ishimoto T, Katou Y, Takehana K et al. Dietary L-lysine prevents arterial calcification in adenine-induced uremic rats. J Am Soc Nephrol 2014;25:1954-65.
102. Seto T, Hamada C, Tomino Y. Suppressive effects of iron overloading on vascular calcification in uremic rats. J Nephrol 2014;27:135-42.
103. Peralta-Ramírez A, Montes de Oca A, Raya AI, Pineda C, López I, Guerrero F et al. Vitamin E protection of obesity-enhanced vascular calcification in uremic rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2014;306:F422-9.
104. Mendoza FJ, Lopez I, Montes de Oca A, Perez J, Rodriguez M, Aguilera-Tejero E. Metabolic acidosis inhibits soft tissue calcification in uremic rats. Kidney Int 2008;73:407-14.
105. Simpson CL, Lindley S, Eisenberg C, Basalyga DM, Starcher BC, Simionescu DT et al. Toward cell therapy for vascular calcification: osteoclast-mediated demineralization of calcified elastin. Cardiovasc Pathol 2007;16:29-37.