Developmental trajectory of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder: Comparison with schizophrenia

European Neuropsychopharmacology

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 158-168

  Bora, Emre ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

Bipolar disorder; Cognition; Development; Mania; Psychosis; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

ADULTHOOD; ARTICLE; BIPOLAR DISORDER; CHILDHOOD; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DISEASES; GENETIC RISK; HUMAN; INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SKILL; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETICS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; PSYCHOLOGY;

BIPOLAR DISORDER; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; COGNITION DISORDERS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; MODELS, GENETIC; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SCHIZOPHRENIC PSYCHOLOGY;

EID: 84929469066     PISSN: 0924977X     EISSN: 18737862     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.09.007     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. Anderson V.A., Anderson P., Northam E., Jacobs R., Catroppa C. Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample. Dev. Neuropsychol. 2001, 20:385-406.
2. Andreasen N.C. Creativity and mental illness: prevalence rates in writers andtheir first-degree relatives. Am. J. Psychiatry 1987, 144(10):1288-1292. PubMed PMID: 3499088.
3. Arango C, Fraguas D, Parellada M. Differential neurodevelopmental trajectories in patients with early-onset bipolar and schizophrenia disorders. Schizophr. Bull. 2014, 40(Suppl 2):S138-S146.
4. Ayres A.M., Busatto G.F., Menezes P.R., Schaufelberger M.S., Coutinho L., Murray R.M., McGuire P.K., Rushe T., Scazufca M. Cognitive deficits in first-episode psychosis: a population-based study in São Paulo, Brazil. Schizophr. Res. 2007, 90:338-343.
5. Balanzá-Martínez V, Rubio C, Selva-Vera G, Martinez-Aran A, Sánchez-Moreno J, Salazar-Fraile J, Vieta E, Tabarés-Seisdedos R. Neurocognitive endophenotypes (endophenocognitypes) from studies of relatives of bipolar disorder subjects: a systematic review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2008, 32:1426-1438.
6. Barrett S.L., Mulholland C.C., Cooper S.J., Rushe T.M. Patterns of neurocognitive impairment in first-episode bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry 2009, 195:67-72.
7. Bombin I., Mayoral M., Castro-Fornieles J., Gonzalez-Pinto A., de la Serna E., Rapado-Castro M., Barbeito S., Parellada M., Baeza I., Graell M., Payá B., Arango C. Neuropsychological evidence for abnormal neurodevelopment associated with early-onset psychoses. Psychol. Med. 2013, 43:757-768.
8. Bora E., Yucel M., Fornito A., Berk M., Pantelis C. Major psychoses with mixed psychotic and mood symptoms: are mixed psychoses associated with different neurobiological markers?. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2008, 118:172-187.
9. Bora E., Vahip S., Akdeniz F., Ilerisoy H., Aldemir E., Alkan M. Executive and verbal working memory dysfunction in first-degree relatives of patients with bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2008, 161:318-324.
10. Bora E., Yucel M., Pantelis C. Cognitive endophenotypes of bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis of neuropsychological deficits in euthymic patients and their first-degree relatives. J. Affect. Disord. 2009, 113:1-20.
11. Bora E., Yucel M., Pantelis C. Cognitive functioning in schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder and affective psychoses: meta-analytic study. Br. J. Psychiatry 2009, 195:475-482.
12. Bora E., Yücel M., Pantelis C. Cognitive impairment in schizophrenia and affective psychoses: implications for DSM-V criteria and beyond. Schizophr. Bull. 2010, 36:36-42.
13. Bora E., Yücel M., Pantelis C. Neurocognitive markers of psychosis in bipolardisorder: a meta-analytic study. J. Affect. Disord. 2010, 127:1-9.
14. Bora E., Berk M. Psychosis continuum and neurocognition in bipolar disorder. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. 2011, 33:319-320.
15. Bora E., Murray R.M. Meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in ultra-high risk to psychosis and first-episode psychosis: do the cognitive deficits progress over, or after, the onset of psychosis?. Schizophr. Bull. 2013, 40:744-755.
16. Bora E., Pantelis C. Theory of mind impairments in first-episode psychosis, individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis and in first-degree relatives of schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2013, 144:31-36.
17. Bora E. Developmental lag and course of cognitive deficits from the premorbid to postonset period in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 2014, 171:369.
18. Bora E. Neurodevelopmental origin of cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. Psychol. Med 2014, (In press). 10.1017/S0033291714001263.
19. Bora E., Lin A., Wood S.J., Yung A.R., McGorry P.D., Pantelis C. Cognitive deficits in youth with familial and clinical high risk to psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2014, 130:1-15.
20. Brocki K.C., Bohlin G. Executive functions in children aged 6 to13: a dimensional and developmental study. Dev. Neuropsychol. 2004, 26:571-593.
21. Bücker J., Popuri S., Muralidharan K., Kozicky J.M., Baitz H.A., Honer W.G., Torres I.J., Yatham L.N. Sex differences in cognitive functioning in patients with bipolardisorder who recently recovered from a first episode of mania: data from theSystematic Treatment Optimization Program for Early Mania (STOP-EM). J. Affect. Disord. 2014, 155:162-168.
22. Cannon M., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E., Harrington H., Taylor A., Poulton R. Evidence for early-childhood, pan-developmental impairment specific to schizophreniform disorder: results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2002, 59:449-456.
23. Catts V.S., Fung S.J., Long L.E., Joshi D., Vercammen A., Allen K.M., Fillman S.G., Rothmond D.A., Sinclair D., Tiwari Y., Tsai S.Y., Weickert T.W., Shannon Weickert C. Rethinking schizophrenia in the context of normal neurodevelopment. Front. Cell. Neurosci. 2013, 7:1-27. (Article 60).
24. Chan RC, Lui SS, Wang Y, Liu AC, Chui WW, Shum DH, Cheung EF. Patients with bipolar disorders share similar but attenuated prospective memory impairments with patients with schizophrenia. Psychol. Med. 2013, 43:1639-1649.
25. Craddock N., Owen M.J. The Kraepelinian dichotomy - going, going. . . but still not gone. Br. J. Psychiatry 2010, 196:92-95.
26. Daros A.R., Ruocco A.C., Reilly J.L., Harris M.S., Sweeney J.A. Facial emotion recognition in first-episode schizophrenia and bipolar disorder with psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 2014, 153:32-37.
27. David A.S., Malmberg A., Brandt L., Allebeck P., Lewis G. IQ and risk for schizophrenia: a population-based cohort study. Psychol. Med. 1997, 27:1311-1323.
28. Demjaha A., MacCabe J.H., Murray R.M. How genes and environmental factors determine the different neurodevelopmental trajectories of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, 38:209-214.
29. Dickerson F., Stallings C., Vaughan C., Origoni A., Khushalani S., Dickinson D., Medoff D. Cognitive functioning in recent onset psychosis. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 2011, 199:367-371.
30. Dickson H., Laurens K.R., Cullen A.E., Hodgins S. Meta-analyses of cognitive and motor function in youth aged 16 years and younger who subsequently develop schizophrenia. Psychol. Med. 2012, 42:743-755.
31. Doody G.A., Johnstone E.C., Sanderson T.L., Owens D.G.C., Muir W.J. Pfropfschizophrenie revisited: schizophrenia in people with mild learning disability. Br. J. Psychiatry 1998, 173:145-153.
32. Doyle A.E., Wozniak J., Wilens T.E., Henin A., Seidman L.J., Petty C., Fried R., Gross L.M., Faraone S.V., Biederman J. Neurocognitive impairment in unaffected siblings of youth with bipolar disorder. Psychol. Med. 2009, 39:1253-1263.
33. Duffy A. The nature of the association between childhood ADHD and the development of bipolar disorder: a review of prospective high-risk studies. Am. J. Psychiatry 2012, 169(12):1247-1255.
34. Fleck D.E., Shear P.K., Madore M., Strakowski S.M. Wisconsin card sorting test performance in bipolar disorder: effects of mood state and early course. Bipolar Disord. 2008, 10:539-545.
35. Fuller R., Nopoulos P., Arndt S., O'Leary D., Ho B-C, Andreasen N.C. Longitudinal assessment of premorbid cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia through examination of standardized scholastic test performance. Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159:1183-1189.
36. Fusar-Poli P., Deste G., Smieskova R., Barlati S., Yung A.R., Howes O., Stieglitz R.D., Vita A., McGuire P., Borgwardt S. Cognitive functioning in prodromal psychosis: a meta-analysis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2012, 69:562-571.
37. Gold J.M., Harvey P.D. Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 1993, 16:295-312.
38. Goldberg T.E., Gold J.M., Greenberg R., Griffin S., Schulz S.C., Pickar D., Kleinman JE, Weinberger D.R. Contrasts between patients with affective disorders and patients with schizophrenia on a neuropsychological test battery. Am. J. Psychiatry 1993, 150:1355-1362.
39. Goodwin G.M., Martinez-Aran A., Glahn D.C., Vieta E. Cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder: neurodevelopment or neurodegeneration? An ECNP expert meeting report. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008, 18:787-793.
40. Gruber S.A., Rosso I.M., Yurgelun-Todd D. Neuropsychological performance predicts clinical recovery in bipolar patients. J. Affect. Disord. 2008, 105:253-260.
41. Hall J., Whalley H.C., Job D.E., Baig B.J., McIntosh A.M., Evans K.L., Thomson P.A., Porteous D.J., Cunningham-Owens D.G., Johnstone E.C., Lawrie S.M. A neuregulin 1 variant associated with abnormal cortical function and psychotic symptoms. Nat. Neurosci. 2006, 9:1477-1478.
42. Heinrichs R.W., Zakzanis K.K. Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology 1998, 12:426-445.
43. Hellvin T., Sundet K., Simonsen C., Aminoff S.R., Lagerberg T.V., Andreassen O.A., Melle I. Neurocognitive functioning in patients recently diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2012, 14:227-238.
44. Hill S.K., Reilly J.L., Harris M.S., Rosen C., Marvin R.W., Deleon O., Sweeney J.A. A comparison of neuropsychological dysfunction in first-episode psychosis patients with unipolar depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2009, 113:167-175.
45. Hirayasu Y., McCarley R.W., Salisbury D.F., Tanaka S., Kwon J.S., Frumin M., Snyderman D., Yurgelun-Todd D., Kikinis R., Jolesz F.A., Shenton M.E. Planum temporale and Heschl gyrus volume reduction in schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging study of first-episode patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2000, 57:692-699.
46. Hori H., Matsuo J., Teraishi T., Sasayama D., Kawamoto Y., Kinoshita Y., Hattori K., Hashikura M., Higuchi T., Kunugi H. Schizotypy and genetic loading for schizophrenia impact upon neuropsychological status in bipolar II and unipolar major depressive disorders. J. Affect. Disord. 2012, 142:225-232.
47. Joshi G., Biederman J., Petty C., Goldin R.L., Furtak S.L., Wozniak J. Examining the comorbidity of bipolar disorder and autism spectrum disorders: a large controlled analysis of phenotypic and familial correlates in a referred population of youth with bipolar I disorder with and without autism spectrum disorders. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2013, 74:578-586.
48. Kahn R.S., Keefe R.S.E. Schizophrenia is a cognitive disorder: time for a change in focus. JAMA Psychiatry 2013, 70:1107-1112.
49. Khandaker G.M., Barnett J.H., White I.R., Jones P.B. A quantitative meta-analysis of population-based studies of premorbid intelligence and schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2011, 132:220-227.
50. Klimes-Dougan B., Ronsaville D., Wiggs E.A., Martiinez P.E. Neuropsychological functioning in adolescent children of mothers with a history of bipolar or major depressive disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 2006, 60:957-965.
51. Koenen K.C., Moffitt T.E., Roberts A.L., Martin L.T., Kubzansky L., Harrington H., Poulton R., Caspi A. Childhood IQ and adult mental disorders: a test of the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Am. J. Psychiatry 2009, 166:50-57.
52. Krabbendam L., Arts B., van Os J., Aleman A. Cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a quantitative review. Schizophr. Res. 2005, 80:137-149.
53. Kumar C.T.S., Frangou S. Clinical implications of cognitive function in bipolar disorder. Ther. Adv. Chronic Dis. 2010, 1:85-93.
54. Kyaga S., Lichtenstein P., Boman M., Hultman C., Långström N., Landén M. Creativity and mental disorder: family study of 300,000 people with severe mental disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 2011, 199:373-379.
55. Larson ER, Shear PK, Krikorian R, Welge J, Strakowski SM. Working memory and inhibitory control among manic and euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2005, 11:163-172.
56. Lebowitz B.K., Shear P.K., Steed M.A., Strakowski S.M. Verbal fluency in mania: relationship to number of manic episodes. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychol. Behav. Neurol. 2001, 14:177-182.
57. Lee RS, Hermens DF, Scott J, Redoblado-Hodge MA, Naismith SL, Lagopoulos J, Griffiths KR, Porter MA, Hickie IB. A meta-analysis of neuropsychological functioning in first-episode bipolar disorders. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2014, 57:1-11.
58. Levin H.S., Culhane K.A., Hartmann J., Evankovich K., Mattson A.J., Harward Ringolz G., Ewing-Cobbs L., Fletcher J.M. Developmental changes in performance on tests of purported frontal lobe functioning. Dev. Neuropsychol. 1991, 7:377-395.
59. Lichtenstein P., Yip B.H., Björk C., Pawitan Y., Cannon T.D., Sullivan P.F., Hultman C.M. Common genetic determinants of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in Swedish families: a population-based study. Lancet 2009, 373(9659):234-239.
60. MacCabe J.H., Lambe M.P., Cnattingius S., Sham P.C., David A.S., Reichenberg A., Murray R.M., Hultman C.M. Excellent school performance at age 16 and risk of adult bipolar disorder: national cohort study. Br. J. Psychiatry 2010, 196:109-115.
61. MacCabe J.H., Wicks S., Löfving S., David A.S., Berndtsson Å., Gustafsson J.E., Allebeck P., Dalman C. Decline in cognitive performance between ages 13 and 18 years and the risk for psychosis in adulthood: a Swedish longitudinal cohort study in males. JAMA Psychiatry 2013, 70:261-270.
62. Martínez-Arán A., Torrent C., Tabares-Seisdedos R., Salamero M., Daban C., Balanza-Martinez V., Sanchez-Moreno J., Manuel Goikolea J., Benabarre A., Colom F., Vieta E. Neurocognitive impairment in bipolar patients with and without history of psychosis. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2008, 69:233-239.
63. Mason C.F. Pre-illness intelligence of mental hospital patients. J. Consult. Psychol. 1956, 20:297-300.
64. Maziade M., Rouleau N., Gingras N., Boutin P., Paradis M.E., Jomphe V., Boutin J., Létourneau K., Gilbert E., Lefebvre A.A., Doré M.C., Marino C., Battaglia M., Mérette C., Roy M.A. Shared neurocognitive dysfunctions in young offspring at extreme risk for schizophrenia or bipolar disorder in eastern quebec multigenerational families. Schizophr. Bull. 2009, 35:919-930.
65. Mesholam-Gately R.I., Giuliano A.J., Goff K.P., Faraone S.V., Seidman L.J. Neurocognition in first-episode schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 2009, 23:315-336.
66. Meyer T.D., Blechert J. Are there attentional deficits in people putatively at risk for affective disorders?. J. Affect. Disord. 2005, 84:63-72.
67. Morgan V.A., Leonard H., Bourke J., Jablensky A.V. Intellectual disability co-occurring with schizophrenia and other psychiatric illness: population based study. Br. J. Psychiatry 2008, 193:364-372.
68. Morgan V.A., Croft M.L., Valuri G.M., Zubrick S.R., Bower C., McNeil T.F., Jablensky A.V. Intellectual disability and other neuropsychiatric outcomes in high-risk children of mothers with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and unipolar major depression. Br. J. Psychiatry 2012, 200:282-289.
69. Mortensen E.L., Sørensen H.J., Jensen H.H., Reinisch J.M., Mednick S.A. IQ and mental disorder in young men. Br. J. Psychiatry 2005, 187:407-415.
70. Murray R.M., Lewis S.W. Is schizophrenia a neurodevelopmental disorder?. Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.) 1987, 681-682.
71. Murray R.M., Sham P., Van Os J., Zanelli J., Cannon M., McDonald C. A developmental model for similarities and dissimilarities between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophr. Res. 2004, 71:405-416.
72. Nehra R., Chakrabarti S., Pradhan B.K., Khehra N. Comparison of cognitive functions between first- and multi-episode bipolar affective disorders. J. Affect. Disord. 2006, 93:185-192.
73. Olvet D.M., Stearns W.H., McLaughlin D., Auther A.M., Correll C.U., Cornblatt B.A. Comparing clinical and neurocognitive features of the schizophrenia prodrome to the bipolar prodrome. Schizophr. Res. 2010, 123:59-63.
74. Pantelis C., Yucel M., Bora E., Fornito A., Testa R., Brewer W.J., Velakoulis D., Wood S.J. Neurobiological markers of illness onset in psychosis and schizophrenia: the search for a moving target. Neuropsychol Rev. 2009, 19:385-398.
75. Parboosing R., Bao Y., Shen L., Schaefer C.A., Brown A.S. Gestational influenza and bipolar disorder in adult offspring. JAMA Psychiatry 2013, 70:677-685.
76. Pavuluri M.N., West A., Hill S.K., Jindal K., Sweeney J.A. Neurocognitive function in pediatric bipolar disorder: 3-year follow-up shows cognitive development lagging behind healthy youths. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2009, 48:299-307.
77. Ratheesh A., Lin A., Nelson B., Wood S.J., Brewer W., Betts J., Berk M., McGorry P., Yung A.R., Bechdolf A. Neurocognitive functioning in the prodrome of mania-an exploratory study. J. Affect. Disord. 2013, 147:441-445.
78. Reichenberg A., Weiser M., Rabinowitz J., Caspi A., Schmeidler J., Mark M., Kaplan Z., Davidson M. A population based cohort study of premorbid intellectual, language, and behavioral functioning in patients with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and nonpsychotic bipolar disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159:2027-2035.
79. Reichenberg A., Caspi A., Harrington H., Houts R., Keefe R.S., Murray R.M., Poulton R., Moffitt T.E. Static and dynamic cognitive deficits in childhood preceding adult schizophrenia: a 30-year study. Am. J. Psychiatry 2010, 167:160-169.
80. Roybal DJ, Singh MK, Cosgrove VE, Howe M, Kelley R, Barnea-Goraly N, Chang KD. Biological evidence for a neurodevelopmental model of pediatric bipolar disorder. Isr. J. Psychiatry Relat. Sci. 2012, 49:28-43.
81. Sanches M., Keshavan M.S., Brambilla P., Soares J.C. Neurodevelopmental basis of bipolar disorder: a critical appraisal. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 32:1617-1627.
82. Savitz J., van der Merwe L., Stein D.J., Solms M., Ramesar R. Neuropsychological status of bipolar I disorder: impact of psychosis. Br. J. Psychiatry 2009, 194:243-251.
83. Schulz J., Sundin J., Leask S., Done D.J. Risk of adult schizophrenia and its relationship to childhood IQ in the 1958 british birth cohort. Schizophr. Bull. 2014, 40:143-151.
84. Seidman L.J., Cherkerzian S., Goldstein J.M., Agnew-Blais J., Tsuang M.T., Buka S.L. Neuropsychological performance and family history in children at age 7 who develop adult schizophrenia or bipolar psychosis in the New England Family Studies. Psychol. Med. 2013, 43:119-131.
85. Sigurdsson E., Fombonne E., Sayal K., Checkley S. Neurodevelopmental antecedents of early-onset bipolar affective disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 1999, 174:121-127.
86. Singh K.K., De Rienzo G., Drane L., Mao Y., Flood Z., Madison J., Ferreira M., Bergen S., King C., Sklar P., Sive H., Tsai L.H. Common DISC1 polymorphisms disrupt Wnt/GSK3β signaling and brain development. Neuron 2011, 72:545-558.
87. Snitz B.E., Macdonald A.W., Carter C.S. Cognitive deficits in unaffected first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients: a meta-analytic review of putative endophenotypes. Schizophr. Bull. 2006, 32:179-194.
88. Szöke A., Trandafir A., Dupont M.E., Méary A., Schürhoff F., Leboyer M. Longitudinal studies of cognition in schizophrenia: meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry 2008, 192:248-257.
89. Tabarés-Seisdedos R., Balanzá-Martinez V., Salazar-Fraile J., Selva-Vera G., Leal-Cercós C., Gómez-Beneyto M Specific executive/attentional deficits in patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder who have a positive family history of psychosis. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2003, 37:479-486.
90. Tabarés-Seisdedos R., Mata I., Escámez T., Vieta E., López-Ilundain J.M., Salazar J, Selva G, Balanzá V, Rubio C, Martínez-Arán A, Valdés-Sánchez L, Geijo-Barrientos E, Martínez S. Evidence for association between structural variants in lissencephaly-related genes and executive deficits in schizophrenia or bipolar patients from a Spanish isolate population. Psychiatr. Genet. 2008, 18:313-317.
91. Thomas P., Kearney G., Napier E., Ellis E., Leuder I., Johnson M. Speech and language in first onset psychosis differences between people with schizophrenia, mania, and controls. Br. J. Psychiatry 1996, 168:337-343.
92. Tiihonen J., Haukka J., Henriksson M., Cannon M., Kieseppä T., Laaksonen I., Sinivuo J., Lönnqvist J. Premorbid intellectual functioning in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: results from a cohort study of male conscripts. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162:1904-1910.
93. Torres I.J., DeFreitas V.G., DeFreitas C.M., Kauer-Sant'Anna M., Bond D.J., Honer W.G., Lam R.W., Yatham L.N. Neurocognitive functioning in patients with bipolar I disorder recently recovered from a first manic episode. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2010, 71:1234-1242.
94. Torres I.J., Kozicky J., Popuri S., Bond D.J., Honer W.G., Lam R.W., Yatham L.N. 12-month longitudinal cognitive functioning in patients recently diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2014, 16:159-171.
95. Vanstraelen M., Tyrer S.P. Rapid cycling bipolar affective disorder in people with intellectual disability: a systematic review. J. Intellect. Disabil. Res. 1999, 43:349-359.
96. Weinberger D.R. The pathogenesis of schizophrenia: a neurodevelopmental theory. The Neurology of Schizophrenia 1986, 387-405. Elsevier, New York. R.A. Nasrallah, D.R. Weinberger (Eds.).
97. Yang L., Zhan G.D., Ding J.J., Wang H.J., Ma D., Huang G.Y., Zhou W.H. Psychiatric illness and intellectual disability in the Prader-Willi syndrome with different molecular defects - a meta analysis. PLoS One 2013, 8:e72640.
98. Zabala A., Rapado M., Arango C., Robles O., de la Serna E., González C., Rodríguez-Sánchez J.M., Andrés P., Mayoral M., Bombín I. Neuropsychological functioning in early-onset first-episode psychosis: comparison of diagnostic subgroups. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2010, 260:225-233.
99. Zammit S., Allebeck P., David A.S., Dalman C., Hemmingsson T., Lundberg I., Lewis G. A longitudinal study of premorbid IQ Score and risk of developing schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, severe depression, and other nonaffective psychoses. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2004, 61:354-360.
100. Zanelli J., Reichenberg A., Morgan K., Fearon P., Kravariti E., Dazzan P., Morgan C., Zanelli C., Demjaha A., Jones P.B., Doody G.A., Kapur S., Murray R.M. Specific and generalized neuropsychological deficits: a comparison of patients with various first-episode psychosis presentations. Am. J. Psychiatry 2010, 167:78-85.
101. Zhao Q., Ma Y.T., Lui S.S., Liu W.H., Xu T., Yu X., Tan S.P., Wang Z.R., Qu M., Wang Y., Huang J., Cheung E.F., Dazzan P., Chan R.C. Neurological soft signs discriminate schizophrenia from major depression but not bipolar disorder. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2013, 43:72-78.