The microbiota: An exercise immunology perspective

Exercise Immunology Review

Volumn 21, Issue , 2015, Pages 70-79

  Bermon, Stéphane ^a,b   Petriz, Bernardo ^c,d   Kajeniene, Alma ^e,f   Prestes, Jonato ^c   Castell, Lindy ^g   Franco, Octavio L ^c,h  

^a University of Nice Sophia Antipolis   (France)

^b Monaco Institute of Sports Medicine and Surgery   (Monaco)

^c UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DE BRASÍLIA   (Brazil)

^d Centro Universitário do Distrito Federal UDF SEP SUL EQ 704 904 CONJ A   (Brazil)

^e LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES   (Lithuania)

^f Kaunas Sports Medicine Centre   (Lithuania)

^g UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^h UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DOM BOSCO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Exercise; Gut; Immunity; Microbiota

Indexed keywords

PREBIOTIC AGENT; PROBIOTIC AGENT; RNA 16S; AGENTS INTERACTING WITH TRANSMITTER, HORMONE OR DRUG RECEPTORS; VOLATILE FATTY ACID;

ALLERGIC DISEASE; BACTERIAL TRANSLOCATION; DYSBIOSIS; ENDOCRINE GLAND; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPIGENETICS; GENETIC VARIATION; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; IMMUNOMODULATION; INTESTINE FLORA; MICROBIAL COMMUNITY; MICROBIAL DIVERSITY; MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; ANIMAL; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BIOSYNTHESIS; DIET; DISEASE MODEL; ENDOCRINE SYSTEM; EXERCISE; FERMENTATION; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING; HOMEOSTASIS; HYPERSENSITIVITY; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOLOGY; INTESTINE; MICROBIOLOGY; MICROFLORA; PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS; PHYSIOLOGY; SECRETION (PROCESS);

ANIMALS; BACTERIAL TRANSLOCATION; DIET; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; ENDOCRINE SYSTEM; EXERCISE; FATTY ACIDS, VOLATILE; FERMENTATION; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; HYPERSENSITIVITY; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOMODULATION; INTESTINES; MICROBIOTA; MODELS, IMMUNOLOGICAL; NEUROTRANSMITTER AGENTS; PHYSICAL EXERTION; PREBIOTICS; PROBIOTICS; STRESS, PHYSIOLOGICAL;

EID: 84928699448     PISSN: 10775552     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. Abrahamsson TR, Jakobsson HE, Andersson AF, Bjorksten B, Engstrand L, Jenmalm MC. Low diversity of the gut microbiota in infants with atopic eczema. J Allergy Clin Immunol 129:434-440, 2012.
2. Adlerberth I, Wold AE. Establishment of the gut microbiota in Western infants. Acta Paediatr 98:229-238, 2009.
3. Azad MB, Konya T, Maughan H, Guttman DS, Field CJ, Chari RS, Sears MR, Becker AB, Scott JA, Kozyrskyj AL. Gut microbiota of healthy Canadian infants: profiles by mode of delivery and infant diet at 4 months. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal = Journal de l'Association Medicale Canadienne 185:385-394, 2013.
4. Backhed F, Ley RE, Sonnenburg JL, Peterson DA, Gordon JI. Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine. Science 307:1915-1920, 2005
5. Bailey MT, Coe CL. Maternal separation disrupts the integrity of the intestinal microflora in infant rhesus monkeys. Developmental psychobiology 35:146-155, 1999.
6. Bailey MT, Dowd SE, Galley JD, Hufnagle AR, Allen RG, Lyte M. Exposure to a social stressor alters the structure of the intestinal microbiota: implications for stressor-induced immunomodulation. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 25:397-407, 2011.
7. Barrett E, Ross RP, O'Toole PW, Fitzgerald GF, Stanton C. γ-Aminobutyric acid production by culturable bacteria from the human intestine. J Appl Microbiol 113(2):411-417, 2012.
8. Bermon S. Airway inflammation and upper respiratory tract infection in athletes: is there a link? Exerc Immunol Rev 13:6-14, 2007.
9. Bisgaard H, Li N, Bonnelykke K, Bonnelykke K, Chawes BL, Skoy T, Paludan-Muller G, Stokholm J, Smith B, Krogfelt KA. Reduced diversity of the intestinal microbiota during infancy is associated with increased risk of allergic disease at school age. J Allergy Clin Immunol 128:646-652, 2011.
10. Bravo JA, Forsythe P, Chew MV, Escaravage E, Savignac HM, Dinan TG, Bienenstock J, Cryan JF. Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:16050-16055, 2011.
11. Brown AJ, Goldsworthy SM, Barnes AA, Eilert MM, Tcheang L, Daniels D, Muir AI, Wigglesworth MJ, Kinghorn I, Fraser NJ, Pike NB, Strum JC, Steplewski KM, Murdock PR, Holder JC, Marshall FH, Szekeres PG, Wilson S, Ignar DM, Foord SM, Wise A, Dowell SJ. The Orphan G protein-coupled receptors GPR41 and GPR43 are activated by propionate and other short chain carboxylic acids. J Biol Chem 278:11312-11319, 2003.
12. Burke DJ, Alverdy JC, Aoys E, and Moss GS. Glutamine-supplemented total parenteral nutrition improves gut immune function. Archives of Surgery 124:1396-1399, 1989.
13. Cani PD, Lecourt E, Dewulf EM, Sohet FM, Pachikian BD, Naslain D, De Backer F, Neyrinck A, Delzenne NM. Gut microbiota fermentation of prebiotics increases satietogenic and incretin gut peptide production with consequences for appetite sensation and glucose response after a meal. Am J Clin Nutr 90:1236-43, 2009.
14. Cebra JJ. Influences of microbiota on intestinal immune system development. Am J Clin Nutr 69:1046S-1051S, 1999.
15. Choi JJ, Eum SY, Rampersaud E, Daunert S, Abreu MT, Toborek M. Exercise attenuates PCB-induced changes in the mouse gut microbiome. Environ Health Perspect 121:725-730, 2013.
16. Chow J, Tang H, Mazmanian SK. Pathobionts of the gastrointestinal microbiota and inflammatory disease. Curr Opin Immunol 23:473-480, 2011.
17. Clarke G, Stilling RM, Kennedy PJ, Stanton C, Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Gut Microbiota: The Neglected Endocrine Organ. Mol Endocrinol 28:1221-38, 2014.
18. Clarke SF, Murphy EF, O'Sullivan O, Lucey AJ, Humphreys M, Hogan A, Hayes P, O'Reilly M, Jeffery IB, Wood-Martin R, Kerins DM, Quigley E, Ross RP, O'Toole PW, Molloy MG, Falvey E, Shanahan F, Cotter PD. Exercise and associated dietary extremes impact on gut microbial diversity. Gut (Jun. 9, 2014). doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2013-306541.
19. Cox AJ, Pyne DB, Saunders PU, Fricker PA. Oral administration of the probiotic Lactobacillus fermentum VRI-003 and mucosal immunity in endurance athletes. Br J Sports Med 44:222-226, 2010.
20. Crumeyrolle-Arias V, Jaglind V, Bruneaud A, Vancasself S, Cardona A, Dauge V, Naudon L, Rabot S. Absence of the gut microbiota enhances anxiety-like behavior and neuroendocrine response to acute stress in rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 42:207-217, 2014.
21. De Castro M, Nankova BB, Shah P, Patel P, Mally PV, Mishra R, LA Gamma EF. Short chain fatty acids regulate tyrosine hydroxylase gene expression through a cAMP-dependent signaling pathway. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 142:28-38, 2005.
22. Dominguez-Bello MG, Costello EK, Contreras M, Magris M, Hidalgo G, Fierer N, Knight R. Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:11971-11975, 2010.
23. Drakoularakou A, Tzortzis G, Rastall RA, Gibson RG. A doubleblind, placebo controlled, randomized human study assessing the capacity of a novel galacto-oligosaccharide mixture in reducing travellers' diarrhoea. Eur J Clin Nutr 64:146-152, 2010.
24. Evans CC, Le Pard KJ, Kwak JW, Stancukas MC, Laskowski S, Dougherty J, Moulton L, Glawe A, Wang Y, Leone V, Antonopoulos DA, Smith D, Chang EB, Ciancio MJ. Exercise prevents weight gain and alters the gut microbiota in a mouse model of high fat diet-induced obesity. PLoS One (Mar. 26, 2014). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092193. eCollection 2014.
25. Evans JM, Morris LS, Marchesi JR. The gut microbiome: the role of a virtual organ in the endocrinology of the host. The Journal of endocrinology 218:37-47, 2013.
26. Fleissner CK, Huebel N, Abd El-Bary MM, Loh G, Klaus S, Blaut M. Absence of intestinal microbiota does not protect mice from diet-induced obesity. Br J Nutr: 104:919-929, 2010
27. Freestone PP, Williams PH, Haigh RD, Maggs AF, Neal CP, Lyte M. Growth stimulation of intestinal commensal Escherichia coli by catecholamines: a possible contributory factor in trauma-induced sepsis. Shock 18:465-470, 2002.
28. Gleeson M, Bishop NC, Oliveira M, Tauler P. Daily probiotic's (Lactobacillus casei Shirota) reduction of infection incidence in athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 21(1):55-64, 2011.
29. Gleeson M, McFarlin B, and Flynn M. Exercise and Toll-like receptors. Exerc Immunol Rev 12:34-53, 2006.
30. Gollwitzer ES, Marsland BJ. Microbiota abnormalities in inflammatory airway diseases - Potential for therapy. Pharmacol Ther 141(1):32-39, 2014. First published Aug. 13, 2013; doi: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.08.002.
31. Gough E, Shaikh H, and Manges AR. Systematic review of intestinal microbiota transplantation (fecal bacteriotherapy) for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 53:994-1002, 2011.
32. Gutekunst K, Krüger K, August C, Diener M, Mooren FC. Acute exercises induce disorders of the gastrointestinal integrity in a murine model. Eur J Appl Physiol, 114:609-17, 2014
33. Hao Q, Lu Z, Dong BR, Huang CQ, Wu T. Probiotics for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Sep. 7; (9): CD006895. doi: 10.1002/14651858. CD006895.pub2.
34. Haywood BA, Black KE, Baker D, McGarvey J, Healey P, Brown RC. Probiotic supplementation reduces the duration and incidence of infections but not severity in elite rugby union players. J Sci Med Sport 17:356-360, 2014.
35. Hildebrandt MA, Hoffmann C, Sherrill-Mix SA, Keilbaugh SA, Mahady M, Chen Y-Y, Knight R, Ahima RS, Bushman F, Wu GD. High-fat diet determines the composition of the murine gut microbiome independently of obesity. Gastroenterology 137:1716-1724, 2009
36. Holzer P, Reichmann F, Farzi A. Neuropeptide Y, peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide in the gut-brain axis. Neuropeptides 46:261-274, 2012.
37. Hooper LV, Littman DR, and Macpherson AJ. Interactions between the microbiota and the immune system. Science 336:1268-1273, 2012.
38. Hughes C, Davoodi-Semiromi Y, Colee JC, Culpepper T, Dahl WJ, Mai V, Christman M, Laugkamp-Henken B. Galactooligosaccharide supplementation reduces stress-induced gastrointestinal dysfunction and days of cold or flu: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial in healthy university students. Am J Clin Nutr 93:1305-11, 2011.
39. Jakobsson HE, Abrahamsson TR, Jenmalm MC, Harris K, Quince C, Jernberg C, Bjorksten B, Engstrand L, Andersson AF. Decreased gut microbiota diversity, delayed Bacteroidetes colonisation and reduced Th1 responses in infants delivered by Caesarean section. Gut 63:559-566, 2014.
40. Janeway CA, Jr, and Medzhitov R. Innate immune recognition. Annu Rev Immunol 20:197-216, 2002.
41. Jumpertz R, Le DS, Turnbaugh PJ, Trinidad C, Bogardus C, Gordon JI, Krakoff J. Energy-balance studies reveal associations between gut microbes, caloric load, and nutrient absorption in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 94:58-65, 2011
42. Kallus SJ, Brandt LJ. The intestinal microbiota and obesity. J Clin Gastroenterol 46:16-24, 2012.
43. Kang SS, Jeraldo PR, Kurti A, Miller ME, Cook MD, Whitlock K, Goldenfeld N, Woods JA, White BA, Chia N, Fryer JD. Diet and exercise orthogonally alter the gut microbiome and reveal independent associations with anxiety and cognition. Mol Neurodegener, 9:36, 2014
44. Khoruts A, Dicksved J, Jansson JK, and Sadowsky MJ. Changes in the composition of the human fecal microbiome after bacteriotherapy for recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J Clin Gastroenterol 44:354-360, 2010.
45. Kolokotroni O, Middleton N, Gavatha M, Lamnisos D, Priftis KN, Yiallouros PK. Asthma and atopy in children born by caesarean section: effect modification by family history of allergies - a population based cross sectional study. BMC Pediatr 12:179, 2012.
46. Lam YY, Mitchell AJ, Holmes AJ, Denyer GS, Gummesson A, Caterson ID, Hunt NH, Storlien LH. Role of the gut in visceral fat inflammation and metabolic disorders. Obesity (Silver Spring), 19:2113-2120, 2011
47. Ley RE, Turnbaugh PJ, Klein S, Gordon JI. Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature 444:1022-1023, 2006
48. Li M, Wang B, Zhang M, Rantalainen M, Wang S, Zhou H, Zhang Y, Shep J, Pang X, Zhang M, Wei H, Chen Y, Lu H, Zuo J, Su M, Qiu Y, Jia W, Xiao C, Smith LM, Yang S, Holmes E, Tang H, Zhao G, Nicholson JK, Li L, Zhao L. Symbiotic gut microbes modulate human metabolic phenotypes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:2117-2122, 2008.
49. Lima AA, Anstead GM, Zhang Q, Figueiredo ÍL, Soares AM, Mota RM, Lima NL, Guerrant RL, Oriá RB. Effects of glutamine alone or in combination with zinc and vitamin A on growth, intestinal barrier function, stress and satiety-related hormones in Brazilian shantytown children. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 69:225-33, 2014
50. Lyte M, Ernst S. Catecholamine induced growth of gram negative bacteria. Life Sci 50:203-212, 1992.
51. Lyte M, Li W, Opitz N, Gaykema RP, Goehler LE. Induction of anxiety-like behavior in mice during the initial stages of infection with the agent of murine colonic hyperplasia Citrobacter rodentium. Physiol Behav 89:350-357, 2006.
52. Macfarlane GT, Macfarlane S. Bacteria, colonic fermentation, and gastrointestinal health. J AOAC Int 95:50-60, 2012.
53. Magnus MC, Haberg SE, Stigum H, Nastad P, London SJ, Vangen S, Nystad W. Delivery by Cesarean section and early childhood respiratory symptoms and disorders: the Norwegian mother and child cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 174:1275-85, 2011.
54. Maslowski KM, Vieira AT, Ng A, Kranich J, Sierro F, Yu D, Schilter HC, Rolph MS, Mackay F, Artis D, Xavier RJ, Teixeira MM, Mackay CR. Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiota and chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature 461:1282-1286, 2009.
55. Matsumoto M, Inoue R, Tsukahara T, Ushida K, Chiji H, Matsubara N, Hara H. Voluntary running exercise alters microbiota composition and increases n-butyrate concentration in the rat cecum. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 72:572-576, 2008.
56. Messaoudi M, Lalonde R, Violle N, Javelot H, Desor D, Nejdi A, Bisson JF, Rougeot C, Pichelin M, Cazaubiel M, Cazaubiel JM. Assessment of psychotropic-like properties of a probiotic formulation (Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Bifidobacterium longum R0175) in rats and human subjects. Brit J Nutr 105:755-764, 2011.
57. Mueller S, Saunier K, Hanisch C, Norin E, Alm L, Midtvedt T, Cresci A, Silvi S, Orpianesi C, Verdenelli MC, Clavel T, Koebnick C, Zunft HJ, Dore J, Blaut M. Differences in fecal microbiota in different European study populations in relation to age, gender, and country: a cross-sectional study. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:1027-1033, 2006.
58. Naccache PH, Faucher N, Caon AC, McColl SR. Propionic acid-induced calcium mobilization in human neutrophils. J Cell Physiol 136:118-124, 1988.
59. 2- in resting and stimulated human neutrophils by shortchain carboxylic acids at neutral pH. Infect Immun 60:5307-5311, 1992.
60. Nakao S, Moriya Y, Furuyama S, Niederman R, Sugiya H. Propionic acid stimulates superoxide generation in human neutrophils. Cell Biol Int 22:331-337, 1998.
61. O'Mahony SM, Marchesi JR, Scully P, Codling C, Ceolho AM, Quigley EM, Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Early life stress alters behavior, immunity, and microbiota in rats: implications for irritable bowel syndrome and psychiatric illnesses. Biol Psychiatry 65:263-267, 2009.
62. Park DY, Ahn YT, Park SH, Huh CS, Yoo SR, Yu R, Sung MK, McGregor RA, Choi MS. Supplementation of Lactobacillus curvatus HY7601 and Lactobacillus plantarum KY1032 in diet-induced obese mice is associated with gut microbial changes and reduction in obesity. PLoS One 8:e59470, 2013. First published Mar. 21, 2013; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059470.
63. Penders J, Gerhold K, Stobberingh EE, Thijs C, Zimmermann K, Lau S, Hamelmann E. Establishment of the intestinal microbiota and its role for atopic dermatitis in early childhood. J Allergy Clin Immunol 32:601-607, 2013.
64. Peters HP, De Vries WR, Vanberge-Henegouwen GP, Akkermans LM. Potential benefits and hazards of physical activity and exercise on the gastrointestinal tract. Gut 48:435-439, 2001.
65. Petriz BA, Castro AP, Almeida JA, Gomes CP, Fernandes GR, Kruger RH, Pereira RW, Franco OL. Exercise induction of gut microbiota modifications in obese, non-obese and hypertensive rats. BMC Genomics 15:511, 2014.
66. Pyne DB, West NP, Cox AJ, Cripps AW. Probiotics supplementation for athletes - Clinical and physiological effects. Eur J Sport Sci. 23:1-10, 2014
67. Qin J, Li R, Raes J, Arumugam M, Burgdorf KS, Manichan C, Nielsen T, Pons N, Levenez F, Yamada T, Mende DR, Li J, Xu J, Li S, Li D, Cao J, Wang B, Liang H, Zheng H, Xie Y, Tap J, Lepage P, Bertalan M, Batto JM, Hansen T, Le Pastier D, Linneberg A, Nielsen HB, Pelletier E, Renault P, Sicherith-Ponten T, Turner K, Zhu H, Yu C, Li S, Jian M, Zhou Y, Li Y, Zhang X, Li S, Qin N, Yang H, Wang J, Brunak S, Dore J, Guarner F, Kristiansen K, Pedersen O, Parkhill J, Weissenbach J, Bork P, Ehrlich SD, Wang J. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 464:59-65, 2010.
68. Queipo-Ortuño MI, Seoane LM, Murri M, Pardo M, Gomez-Zumaquero JM, Cardona F, Casanueva F, Tinahones FJ. Gut microbiota composition in male rat models under different nutritional status and physical activity and its association with serum leptin and ghrelin levels. PLoS One 28;8(5):e65465, 2013. First published May 28, 2013; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065465.
69. Reid G, Younes JA, Van der Mei HC, Gloor GB, Knight R, and Busscher HJ. Microbiota restoration: natural and supplemented recovery of human microbial communities. Nat Rev Microbiol 9:27-38, 2011.
70. Rescigno M. Intestinal microbiota and its effects on the immune system. Cell Microbiol 16:1004-13, 2014.
71. Ridaura VK, Faith JJ, Rey FE, Cheng J, Duncan AE, Kau AL, Griffin NW, Lombard V, Henrissat B, Bain JR, Muehlbauer MJ, Ilkayeva O, Semenkovich CF, Funai K, Hayashi DK, Lyle BJ, Martini MC, Ursell LK, Clemente JC, Van Treuren W, Walters WA, Knight R, Newgard CB, Heath AC, Gordon JI. Gut microbiota from twins discordant for obesity modulate metabolism in mice. Science 341(6150):1241214, 2013.
72. Roberfroid M, Gibson GR, Hoyles L, McCartney AL, Rastall R, Rowland I, Wolvers D, Watzl B, Szajewska H, Stahl B, Guarner F, Respondek F, Whelan K, Coxam V, Davicco MJ, Leotoing L, Wittrant Y, Delzenne MD, Canil PD, Neyrinck AM, Meheust A. Prebiotic effects: metabolic and health benefits. Br J Nutr 104:S1-63, 2010.
73. Samuel BS, Shaito A, Motoike T, Rey FE, Backhed F, Manchester JK, Hammer RE, Williams SC, Crowley J, Yanagisawa M, Gordon JI. Effects of the gut microbiota on host adiposity are modulated by the short-chain fatty-acid binding G proteincoupled receptor, Gpr41. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 105:16767-16772, 2008
74. Sokol H, Pigneur B, Watterlot L, Lakhdari O, Bermudez-Humaran LG, Gratadoux JJ, Blugeon S, Bridonneau C, Furet JP, Corthier G, Grangette C, Vasquez N, Pochart P, Trugnan G, Thomas G, Blottiere HM, Dore J, Marteau P, Seksik P, Langella P. Faecalibacterium prausnitzii is an anti-inflammatory commensal bacterium identified by gut microbiota analysis of Crohn disease patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:16731-16736, 2008.
75. Strachan DP. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ 299:1259-1260, 1989.
76. Strober W. Impact of the gut microbiome on mucosal inflammation. Trends Immunol 34(9):423-430, 2013.
77. Sudo N, Chida Y, Aiba Y, Sonoda J, Oyama N, Yu XN, Kubo C, Koga Y. Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice. J Physiol 558:263-275, 2004.
78. Swiatczak B, Rescigno M, Cohen IR. Systemic features of immune recognition in the gut. Microbes Infect 13:983-991, 2011.
79. Thavagnanam S, Fleming J, Bromley A, Shields MD, Cardwell CR. A meta-analysis of the association between Caesarean section and childhood asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 38:629-633, 2008.
80. Tsuji H, Oozeer R, Matsuda K, Matsuki T, Ohta T, Nomoto K, Tanaka R, Kawashima M, Kawashima K, Nagata S, Yamashiro Y. Molecular monitoring of the development of intestinal microbiota in Japanese infants. Benef Microbes 3:113-125, 2012.
81. Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Hamady M, Fraser-Liggett CM, Knight R, Gordon JI. The human microbiome project. Nature 449:804-810, 2007.
82. Tzounis X, Rodriguez-Mateos A, Vulevic J, Gibson GR, Kwik-Uribe C, Spencer JP. Prebiotic evaluation of cocoaderived flavanols in healthy humans by using a randomized, controlled, double blind, crossover intervention study. Am J Clin Nutr 93:62-72, 2011.
83. Vinolo MA, Rodrigues HG, Nachbar RT, Curi R. Regulation of inflammation by short chain fatty acids. Nutrients 10:858-876, 2011. First published Oct. 14, 2011; doi: 10.3390/nu3100858.
84. Walsh NP, Gleeson M, Shephard RJ, Gleeson M, Woods JA, Bishop NC, Fleshner M, Green C, Pedersen BK, Hoffman-Goetz L, Rogers CJ, Northoff H, Abbasi A, Simon P. Position statement. Part one: Immune function and exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev 17:6-63, 2011.
85. Wang F, Li Q, Wang C, Tang C, Li J. Dynamic Alteration of the Colonic Microbiota in Intestinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury. PLoS One 7(7):e42027. First published July 27, 2012; doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042027
86. Wang M, Karlsson C, Olsson C, Alderberth I, Wold AE, Strachan DP, Martricardi PM, Aberg N, Perkin MR, Tripodi S, Coates A, Hesselmar B, Saalman R, Molin G, Ahrne S. Reduced diversity in the early fecal microbiota of infants with atopic eczema. J Allergy Clin Immunol 121:129-134, 2008.
87. West NP, Christophersen CT, Pyne DB, Cripps AW, Conlon MA, Topping DL, Kang S, McSweeney CS, Fricker PA, Aguirre D, Clarke JM. Butyrylated starch increases colonic butyrate concentration but has limited effects on immunity in healthy physically active individuals. Exerc Immunol Rev 19:102-119, 2013.
88. West NP, Pyne DB, Cripps AW, Christophersen CT, Conlon MA, Fricker PA. Gut Balance, a symbiotic supplement, increases fecal Lactobacillus paracasei but has little effect on immunity in healthy physically active individuals. Gut Microbes 3:221-227, 2012.
89. Xiong Y, Miyamoto N, Shibata K, Valasek MA, Motoike T, Kedzierski RM, Yanagisawa M. Short-chain fatty acids stimulate leptin production in adipocytes through the G protein-coupled receptor GPR41. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:1045-1050, 2004.
90. Yatsunenko T, Rey FE, Manary MJ, Trehan I, Dominguez-Bello MG, Contreras M, Magris M, Hidalgo G, Baldassano RN, Anokhin AP, Heath AC, Warner B, Reeder J, Kuczynski J, Caporaso JG, Lozupone CA, Lauber C, Clemente JC, Knights D, Knight R, Gordon JI. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature 486:222-227, 2012.