Interaction of circadian and stress systems in the regulation of adipose physiology

Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation

Volumn 19, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 103-115

  Tsang, Anthony H ^a   Kolbe, Isa ^a   Seemann, Julia ^a   Oster, Henrik ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LÜBECK   (Germany)

Author keywords

adipose; circadian clock; circadian rhythm; clock genes; glucocorticoids; hypothalamic pituitary adrenal cortical axis; lipolysis; stress; sympathetic nervous system

Indexed keywords

HYDROCORTISONE; LIPID; STRESS HORMONE;

ADAPTATION; ADIPOSE TISSUE; CHRONIC STRESS; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; ENDOCRINE FUNCTION; ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; HUMAN; LIPID METABOLISM; METABOLIC DISORDER; NONHUMAN; OSCILLATION; PHYSIOLOGY; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; RNA TRANSLATION; SHIFT WORKER; SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS; ANIMAL; HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; METABOLISM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; ANIMALS; CIRCADIAN CLOCKS; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; METABOLIC DISEASES; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; STRESS, PHYSIOLOGICAL;

EID: 84928649032     PISSN: 18681883     EISSN: 18681891     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1515/hmbci-2014-0020     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Panda S, Hogenesch JB, Kay SA. Circadian rhythms from flies to human. Nature 2002;417:329-35.
2. Reppert SM, Weaver DR. Coordination of circadian timing in mammals. Nature 2002;418:935-41.
3. Akerstedt T, Fredlund P, Gillberg M, Jansson B. A prospective study of fatal occupational accidents-relationship to sleeping difficulties and occupational factors. J Sleep Res 2002;11:69-71.
4. Folkard S, Lombardi DA, Tucker PT. Shiftwork: safety, sleepiness and sleep. Ind Health 2005;43:20-3.
5. Folkard S, Tucker P. Shift work, safety and productivity. Occup Med (Lond) 2003;53:95-101.
6. Nagaya T, Yoshida H, Takahashi H, Kawai M. Markers of insulin resistance in day and shift workers aged 30-59 years. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2002;75:562-8.
7. Simon C, Weibel L, Brandenberger G. Twenty-four-hour rhythms of plasma glucose and insulin secretion rate in regular night workers. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000;278:E413-20.
8. Lund J, Arendt J, Hampton SM, English J, Morgan LM. Postprandial hormone and metabolic responses amongst shift workers in Antarctica. J Endocrinol 2001;171:557-64.
9. Pan A, Schernhammer ES, Sun Q, Hu FB. Rotating night shift work and risk of type 2 diabetes: two prospective cohort studies in women. PLoS Med 2011;8:e1001141.
10. Marquezea EC, Lemosa LC, Soaresa N, Lorenzi-Filhob G, Morenoa CR. Weight gain in relation to night work among nurses. Work 2012;41(Suppl 1):2043-8.
11. Garaulet M, Ordovas JM, Madrid JA. The chronobiology, etiology and pathophysiology of obesity. Int J Obes (Lond) 2010;34:1667-83.
12. Burioka N, Fukuoka Y, Takata M, Endo M, Miyata M, Chikumi H, Tomita K, Kodani M, Touge H, Takeda K, Sumikawa T, Yamaguchi K, Ueda Y, Nakazaki H, Suyama H, Yamasaki A, Sano H, Igishi T, Shimizu E. Circadian rhythms in the CNS and peripheral clock disorders: function of clock genes: influence of medication for bronchial asthma on circadian gene. J Pharmacol Sci 2007;103:144-9.
13. Maron BJ, Kogan J, Proschan MA, Hecht GM, Roberts WC. Circadian variability in the occurrence of sudden cardiac death in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;23:1405-9.
14. Bremner WF, Sothern RB, Kanabrocki EL, Ryan M, McCormick JB, Dawson S, Connors ES, Rothschild R, Third JL, Vahed S, Nemchausky BM, Shirazi P, Olwin JH. Relation between circadian patterns in levels of circulating lipoprotein(a), fibrinogen, platelets, and related lipid variables in men. Am Heart J 2000;139; (1 Pt 1): 164-73.
15. Staels B. When the Clock stops ticking, metabolic syndrome explodes. Nat Med 2006;12:54-5; discussion 5.
16. Janssen D, Nachreiner F. Health and psychosocial effects of flexible working hours. Rev Saude Publica 2004;38(Suppl): 11-8.
17. Kaliterna LL, Prizmic LZ, Zganec N. Quality of life, life satisfaction and happiness in shift-and non-shiftworkers. Rev Saude Publica 2004;38(Suppl):3-10.
18. Tepas DI, Barnes-Farrell JL, Bobko N, Fischer FM, Iskra-Golec I, Kaliterna L. The impact of night work on subjective reports of well-being: an exploratory study of health care workers from five nations. Rev Saude Publica 2004;38(Suppl):26-31.
19. Zee PC, Goldstein CA. Treatment of shift work disorder and jet lag. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2010;12:396-411.
20. Despres JP. Body fat distribution and risk of cardiovascular disease: an update. Circulation 2012;126:1301-13.
21. van der Spek R, Kreier F, Fliers E, Kalsbeek A. Circadian rhythms in white adipose tissue. Prog Brain Res 2012;199:183-201.
22. Froy O. Circadian rhythms and obesity in mammals. ISRN Obes 2012;2012:437198.
23. Cook A, Cowan C. Adipose. Cambridge, MA: StemBook, 2008.
24. Bartelt A, Heeren J. Adipose tissue browning and metabolic health. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2014;10:24-36.
25. Hassan M, Latif N, Yacoub M. Adipose tissue: friend or foe? Nat Rev Cardiol 2012;9:689-702.
26. Jensen MD. Role of body fat distribution and the metabolic complications of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93(11 Suppl 1):S57-63.
27. Sinha R, Jastreboff AM. Stress as a common risk factor for obesity and addiction. Biol Psychiatry 2013;73:827-35.
28. Ukai-Tadenuma M, Kasukawa T, Ueda HR. Proof-by-synthesis of the transcriptional logic of mammalian circadian clocks. Nat Cell Biol 2008;10:1154-63.
29. Brown SA, Kowalska E, Dallmann R. (Re)inventing the circadian feedback loop. Dev Cell 2012;22:477-87.
30. Welsh DK, Takahashi JS, Kay SA. Suprachiasmatic nucleus: cell autonomy and network properties. Ann Rev Physiol 2010;72:551-77.
31. Dibner C, Schibler U, Albrecht U. The mammalian circadian timing system: organization and coordination of central and peripheral clocks. Ann Rev Physiol 2010;72:517-49.
32. Akhtar RA, Reddy AB, Maywood ES, Clayton JD, King VM, Smith AG, Gant TW, Hastings MH, Kyriacou CP. Circadian cycling of the mouse liver transcriptome, as revealed by cDNA microarray, is driven by the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Curr Biol 2002;12:540-50.
33. Yamazaki S, Numano R, Abe M, Hida A, Takahashi R, Ueda M, Block GD, Sakaki Y, Menaker M, Tei H. Resetting central and peripheral circadian oscillators in transgenic rats. Science 2000;288:682-5.
34. Yoo SH, Yamazaki S, Lowrey PL, Shimomura K, Ko CH, Buhr ED, Siepka SM, Hong HK, Oh WJ, Yoo OJ, Menaker M, Takahashi JS. PERIOD2:LUCIFERASE real-time reporting of circadian dynamics reveals persistent circadian oscillations in mouse peripheral tissues. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:5339-46.
35. Liu AC, Welsh DK, Ko CH, Tran HG, Zhang EE, Priest AA, Buhr ED, Singer O, Meeker K, Verma IM, Doyle FJ, 3rd, Takahashi JS, Kay SA. Intercellular coupling confers robustness against mutations in the SCN circadian clock network. Cell 2007;129:605-16.
36. Partch CL, Green CB, Takahashi JS. Molecular architecture of the mammalian circadian clock. Trends Cell Biol 2014;24:90-9.
37. Damiola F, Le Minh N, Preitner N, Kornmann B, Fleury-Olela F, Schibler U. Restricted feeding uncouples circadian oscillators in peripheral tissues from the central pacemaker in the suprachi-asmatic nucleus. Genes Dev 2000;14:2950-61.
38. Zvonic S, Ptitsyn AA, Conrad SA, Scott LK, Floyd ZE, Kilroy G, Wu X, Goh BC, Mynatt RL, Gimble JM. Characterization of peripheral circadian clocks in adipose tissues. Diabetes 2006;55:962-70.
39. Gomez-Santos C, Gomez-Abellan P, Madrid JA, Hernandez-Morante JJ, Lujan JA, Ordovas JM, Garaulet M. Circadian rhythm of clock genes in human adipose explants. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2009;17:1481-5.
40. Shostak A, Meyer-Kovac J, Oster H. Circadian regulation of lipid mobilization in white adipose tissues. Diabetes 2013;62: 2195-203.
41. Shimba S, Ogawa T, Hitosugi S, Ichihashi Y, Nakadaira Y, Kobayashi M, Tezuka M, Kosuge Y, Ishige K, Ito Y, Komiyama K, Okamatsu-Ogura Y, Kimura K, Saito M. Deficient of a clock gene, brain and muscle Arnt-like protein-1 (BMAL1), induces dyslipi-demia and ectopic fat formation. PLoS One 2011;6:e25231.
42. Asterholm IW, Scherer PE. Metabolic jet lag when the fat clock is out of sync. Nat Med 2012;18:1738-40.
43. Shimba S, Ishii N, Ohta Y, Ohno T, Watabe Y, Hayashi M, Wada T, Aoyagi T, Tezuka M. Brain and muscle Arnt-like protein-1 (BMAL1), a component of the molecular clock, regulates adipo-genesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102:12071-6.
44. Gavrila A, Peng CK, Chan JL, Mietus JE, Goldberger AL, Mantzoros CS. Diurnal and ultradian dynamics of serum adi-ponectin in healthy men: comparison with leptin, circulating soluble leptin receptor, and cortisol patterns. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:2838-43.
45. Cao H. Adipocytokines in obesity and metabolic disease. J Endo-crinol 2014;220:T47-59.
46. Friedman JM, Halaas JL. Leptin and the regulation of body weight in mammals. Nature 1998;395:763-70.
47. Schwartz MW, Woods SC, Porte D, Jr., Seeley RJ, Baskin DG. Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature 2000;404:661-71.
48. Kalsbeek A, Fliers E, Romijn JA, La Fleur SE, Wortel J, Bakker O, Endert E, Buijs RM. The suprachiasmatic nucleus generates the diurnal changes in plasma leptin levels. Endocrinology 2001;142:2677-85.
49. Marqueze EC, Ulhoa MA, Moreno CR. Irregular working times and metabolic disorders among truck drivers: a review. Work 2012;41(Suppl 1):3718-25.
50. Lucassen EA, Rother KI, Cizza G. Interacting epidemics? Sleep curtailment, insulin resistance, and obesity. Ann NY Acad Sci 2012;1264:110-34.
51. Gomez-Abellan P, Gomez-Santos C, Madrid JA, Milagro FI, Campion J, Martinez JA, Ordovas JM, Garaulet M. Circadian expression of adiponectin and its receptors in human adipose tissue. Endocrinology 2010;151:115-22.
52. Scheer FA, Chan JL, Fargnoli J, Chamberland J, Arampatzi K, Shea SA, Blackburn GL, Mantzoros CS. Day/night variations of high-molecular-weight adiponectin and lipocalin-2 in healthy men studied under fed and fasted conditions. Diabetologia 2010;53:2401-5.
53. Barnea M, Madar Z, Froy O. High-fat diet followed by fasting disrupts circadian expression of adiponectin signaling pathway in muscle and adipose tissue. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2010;18:230-8.
54. Oliver P, Ribot J, Rodriguez AM, Sanchez J, Pico C, Palou A. Resistin as a putative modulator of insulin action in the daily feeding/fasting rhythm. Pflugers Archiv 2006;452:260-7.
55. Gomez Abellan P, Gomez Santos C, Madrid JA, Milagro FI, Campion J, Martinez JA, Lujan JA, Ordovas JM, Garaulet M. Site-specific circadian expression of leptin and its receptor in human adipose tissue. Nutricion Hospitalaria 2011;26:1394-401.
56. Benedict C, Shostak A, Lange T, Brooks SJ, Schioth HB, Schultes B, Born J, Oster H, Hallschmid M. Diurnal rhythm of circulating nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (Nampt/visfatin/PBEF): impact of sleep loss and relation to glucose metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:E218-22.
57. Bray MS, Young ME. Circadian rhythms in the development of obesity: potential role for the circadian clock within the adipo-cyte. Obesity Rev 2007;8:169-81.
58. Ando H, Yanagihara H, Hayashi Y, Obi Y, Tsuruoka S, Takamura T, Kaneko S, Fujimura A. Rhythmic messenger ribonucleic acid expression of clock genes and adipocytokines in mouse visceral adipose tissue. Endocrinology 2005;146:5631-6.
59. Butruille L, Drougard A, Knauf C, Moitrot E, Valet P, Storme L, Deruelle P, Lesage J. The apelinergic system: sexual dimorphism and tissue-specific modulations by obesity and insulin resistance in female mice. Peptides 2013;46:94-101.
60. Parlee SD, Ernst MC, Muruganandan S, Sinal CJ, Goralski KB. Serum chemerin levels vary with time of day and are modified by obesity and tumor necrosis factor-{alpha}. Endocrinology 2010;151:2590-602.
61. To H, Irie S, Tomonari M, Watanabe Y, Kitahara T, Sasaki H. Therapeutic index of methotrexate depends on circadian cycling of tumour necrosis factor-alpha in collagen-induced arthritic rats and mice. J Pharm Pharmacol 2009;61:1333-8.
62. Cano P, Cardinali DP, Rios-Lugo MJ, Fernandez-Mateos MP, Reyes Toso CF, Esquifino AI. Effect of a high-fat diet on 24-hour pattern of circulating adipocytokines in rats. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2009;17:1866-71.
63. Guan Z, Vgontzas AN, Omori T, Peng X, Bixler EO, Fang J. Interleukin-6 levels fluctuate with the light-dark cycle in the brain and peripheral tissues in rats. Brain Behav Immun 2005;19:526-9.
64. Vgontzas AN, Bixler EO, Lin HM, Prolo P, Trakada G, Chrousos GP. IL-6 and its circadian secretion in humans. Neuroimmunomo-dulation 2005;12:131-40.
65. Oishi K. Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and the circadian clock in metabolic disorders. Clin Exp Hypertens 2009;31:208-19.
66. Hayashida S, Kuramoto Y, Koyanagi S, Oishi K, Fujiki J, Matsunaga N, Ikeda E, Ohdo S, Shimeno H, Soeda S. Proxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha mediates high-fat, diet-enhanced daily oscillation of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 activity in mice. Chronobiol Int 2010;27:1735-53.
67. Joels M, Baram TZ. The neuro-symphony of stress. Nat Rev Neurosci 2009;10:459-66.
68. Ulrich-Lai YM, Herman JP. Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nat Rev Neurosci 2009;10: 397-409.
69. Ratman D, Vanden Berghe W, Dejager L, Libert C, Tavernier J, Beck IM, De Bosscher K. How glucocorticoid receptors modulate the activity of other transcription factors: a scope beyond tethering. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013;380(1-2):41-54.
70. Surjit M, Ganti KP, Mukherji A, Ye T, Hua G, Metzger D, Li M, Chambon P. Widespread negative response elements mediate direct repression by agonist-liganded glucocorticoid receptor. Cell 2011;145:224-41.
71. Hryhorczuk C, Sharma S, Fulton SE. Metabolic disturbances connecting obesity and depression. Front Neurosci 2013;7:177.
72. Lee MJ, Pramyothin P, Karastergiou K, Fried SK. Deconstructing the roles of glucocorticoids in adipose tissue biology and the development of central obesity. Biochim Biophys Acta 2014;1842:473-81.
73. Mazziotti G, Gazzaruso C, Giustina A. Diabetes in Cushing syndrome: basic and clinical aspects. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2011;22:499-506.
74. Rebuffe-Scrive M, Krotkiewski M, Elfverson J, Bjorntorp P. Muscle and adipose tissue morphology and metabolism in Cushing's syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;67:1122-8.
75. Freedman MR, Horwitz BA, Stern JS. Effect of adrenalectomy and glucocorticoid replacement on development of obesity. Am J Physiol 1986;250(4 Pt 2):R595-607.
76. Wang JC, Gray NE, Kuo T, Harris CA. Regulation of triglyceride metabolism by glucocorticoid receptor. Cell Biosci 2012;2:19.
77. Peckett AJ, Wright DC, Riddell MC. The effects of glucocorti-coids on adipose tissue lipid metabolism. Metab Clin Exper 2011;60:1500-10.
78. Divertie GD, Jensen MD, Miles JM. Stimulation of lipolysis in humans by physiological hypercortisolemia. Diabetes 1991;40:1228-32.
79. Macfarlane DP, Forbes S, Walker BR. Glucocorticoids and fatty acid metabolism in humans: fuelling fat redistribution in the metabolic syndrome. J Endocrinol 2008;197:189-204.
80. Williams BH, Berdanier CD. Effects of diet composition and adrenalectomy on the lipogenic responses of rats to starvation-refeeding. J Nutr 1982;112:534-41.
81. 2O. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004;286:E577-88.
82. Lee MJ, Fried SK. Integration of hormonal and nutrient signals that regulate leptin synthesis and secretion. Am J Physiol Endo-crinol Metab 2009;296:E1230-8.
83. Huang Q, Rivest R, Richard D. Effects of leptin on corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) synthesis and CRF neuron activation in the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus of obese (ob/ob) mice. Endocrinology 1998;139:1524-32.
84. Sukumaran S, Dubois DC, Jusko WJ, Almon RR. Glucocorticoid effects on adiponectin expression. Vitam Horm 2012;90: 163-86.
85. Zeman M, Jirak R, Jachymova M, Vecka M, Tvrzicka E, Zak A. Leptin, adiponectin, leptin to adiponectin ratio and insulin resistance in depressive women. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2009;30:387-95.
86. Penicaud L. The neural feedback loop between the brain and adipose tissues. Endocrine Dev 2010;19:84-92.
87. Bartness TJ, Song CK. Brain-adipose tissue neural crosstalk. Physiol Behav 2007;91:343-51.
88. Bamshad M, Aoki VT, Adkison MG, Warren WS, Bartness TJ. Central nervous system origins of the sympathetic nervous system outflow to white adipose tissue. Am J Physiol 1998;275(1 Pt 2):R291-9.
89. Liu RH, Mizuta M, Matsukura S. The expression and functional role of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in rat adipocytes. J Pharmacol Exper Ther 2004;310:52-8.
90. Kreier F, Fliers E, Voshol PJ, Van Eden CG, Havekes LM, Kalsbeek A, Van Heijningen CL, Sluiter AA, Mettenleiter TC, Romijn JA, Sauerwein HP, Buijs RM. Selective parasympathetic innervation of subcutaneous and intra-abdominal fat-functional implications. J Clin Invest 2002;110:1243-50.
91. Stallknecht B, Lorentsen J, Enevoldsen LH, Bulow J, Biering-Sorensen F, Galbo H, Kjaer M. Role of the sympatho-adrenergic system in adipose tissue metabolism during exercise in humans. J Physiol 2001;536(Pt 1):283-94.
92. Nonogaki K. New insights into sympathetic regulation of glucose and fat metabolism. Diabetologia 2000;43:533-49.
93. Cammisotto PG, Bukowiecki LJ. Mechanisms of leptin secretion from white adipocytes. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2002;283:C244-50.
94. Turtzo LC, Marx R, Lane MD. Cross-talk between sympathetic neurons and adipocytes in coculture. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:12385-90.
95. Fu L, Isobe K, Zeng Q, Suzukawa K, Takekoshi K, Kawakami Y. beta-adrenoceptor agonists downregulate adiponectin, but upregulate adiponectin receptor 2 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression in adipocytes. Eur J Pharmacol 2007;569:155-62.
96. Mohamed-Ali V, Bulmer K, Clarke D, Goodrick S, Coppack SW, Pinkney JH. beta-Adrenergic regulation of proinflamma-tory cytokines in humans. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000;24(Suppl 2):S154-5.
97. Vicennati V, Vottero A, Friedman C, Papanicolaou DA. Hormonal regulation of interleukin-6 production in human adipocytes. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2002;26:905-11.
98. Smith MM, Minson CT. Obesity and adipokines: effects on sympathetic overactivity. J Physiol 2012;590(Pt 8):1787-801.
99. Van Cauter E, Spiegel K, Tasali E, Leproult R. Metabolic consequences of sleep and sleep loss. Sleep Med 2008;9(Suppl 1):S23-8.
100. Albrecht U. Circadian clocks and mood-related behaviors. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2013:227-39.
101. Erren TC, Reiter RJ. Defning chronodisruption. J Pineal Res 2009;46:245-7.
102. Spiga F, Walker JJ, Terry JR, Lightman SL. HPA Axis-Rhythms. Comp Physiol 2014;4:1273-98.
103. Moore RY, Eichler VB. Loss of a circadian adrenal corticoster-one rhythm following suprachiasmatic lesions in the rat. Brain Res 1972;42:201-6.
104. Stephan FK, Zucker I. Circadian rhythms in drinking behavior and locomotor activity of rats are eliminated by hypothalamic lesions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1972;69:1583-6.
105. Buijs RM, Wortel J, Van Heerikhuize JJ, Feenstra MG, Ter Horst GJ, Romijn HJ, Kalsbeek A. Anatomical and functional demonstration of a multisynaptic suprachiasmatic nucleus adrenal (cortex) pathway. Eur J Neurosci 1999;11: 1535-44.
106. Jasper MS, Engeland WC. Splanchnicotomy increases adrenal sensitivity to ACTH in nonstressed rats. Am J Physiol 1997;273(2 Pt 1):E363-8.
107. Ishida A, Mutoh T, Ueyama T, Bando H, Masubuchi S, Nakahara D, Tsujimoto G, Okamura H. Light activates the adrenal gland: timing of gene expression and glucocorticoid release. Cell Metab 2005;2:297-307.
108. LeGates TA, Altimus CM, Wang H, Lee HK, Yang S, Zhao H, Kirkwood A, Weber ET, Hattar S. Aberrant light directly impairs mood and learning through melanopsin-expressing neurons. Nature 2012;491:594-8.
109. Dickmeis T, Weger BD, Weger M. The circadian clock and glucocorticoids-interactions across many time scales. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013;380(1-2):2-15.
110. Oster H, Damerow S, Kiessling S, Jakubcakova V, Abraham D, Tian J, Hofmann MW, Eichele G. The circadian rhythm of glucocorticoids is regulated by a gating mechanism residing in the adrenal cortical clock. Cell Metab 2006;4: 163-73.
111. Son GH, Chung S, Choe HK, Kim HD, Baik SM, Lee H, Lee HW, Choi S, Sun W, Kim H, Cho S, Lee KH, Kim K. Adrenal peripheral clock controls the autonomous circadian rhythm of glucocorti-coid by causing rhythmic steroid production. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008;105:20970-5.
112. Rosenfeld P, Van Eekelen JA, Levine S, De Kloet ER. Ontogeny of the type 2 glucocorticoid receptor in discrete rat brain regions: an immunocytochemical study. Brain Res 1988;470:119-27.
113. van Eekelen JA, Bohn MC, de Kloet ER. Postnatal ontogeny of mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptor gene expression in regions of the rat tel-and diencephalon. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 1991;61:33-43.
114. Balsalobre A, Brown SA, Marcacci L, Tronche F, Kellendonk C, Reichardt HM, Schutz G, Schibler U. Resetting of circadian time in peripheral tissues by glucocorticoid signaling. Science 2000;289:2344-7.
115. Nader N, Chrousos GP, Kino T. Circadian rhythm transcription factor CLOCK regulates the transcriptional activity of the glucocorticoid receptor by acetylating its hinge region lysine cluster: potential physiological implications. FASEB J 2009;23:1572-83.
116. Lamia KA, Papp SJ, Yu RT, Barish GD, Uhlenhaut NH, Jonker JW, Downes M, Evans RM. Cryptochromes mediate rhythmic repression of the glucocorticoid receptor. Nature 2011;480:552-6.
117. Leliavski A, Shostak A, Husse J, Oster H. Impaired glucocorti-coid production and response to stress in Arntl-defcient male mice. Endocrinology 2014;155:133-42.
118. Wagner U, Born J. Memory consolidation during sleep: interactive efects of sleep stages and HPA regulation. Stress 2008;11:28-41.
119. Lasikiewicz N, Hendrickx H, Talbot D, Dye L. Exploration of basal diurnal salivary cortisol profles in middle-aged adults: associations with sleep quality and metabolic parameters. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008;33:143-51.
120. Therrien F, Drapeau V, Lalonde J, Lupien SJ, Beaulieu S, Tremblay A, Richard D. Awakening cortisol response in lean, obese, and reduced obese individuals: efect of gender and fat distribution. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2007;15:377-85.
121. Mujica-Parodi LR, Renelique R, Taylor MK. Higher body fat percentage is associated with increased cortisol reactivity and impaired cognitive resilience in response to acute emotional stress. Int J Obes (Lond) 2009;33:157-65.
122. Kovac J, Husse J, Oster H. A time to fast, a time to feast: the crosstalk between metabolism and the circadian clock. Mol Cells 2009;28:75-80.
123. Kohsaka A, Laposky AD, Ramsey KM, Estrada C, Joshu C, Kobayashi Y, Turek FW, Bass J. High-fat diet disrupts behavioral and molecular circadian rhythms in mice. Cell Metab 2007;6:414-21.
124. Eckel-Mahan KL, Patel VR, de Mateo S, Orozco-Solis R, Ceglia NJ, Sahar S, Dilag-Penilla SA, Dyar KA, Baldi P, Sassone-Corsi P. Reprogramming of the circadian clock by nutritional challenge. Cell 2013;155:1464-78.
125. Hatori M, Vollmers C, Zarrinpar A, DiTacchio L, Bushong EA, Gill S, Leblanc M, Chaix A, Joens M, Fitzpatrick JA, Ellisman MH, Panda S. Time-restricted feeding without reducing caloric intake prevents metabolic diseases in mice fed a high-fat diet. Cell metabolism 2012;15:848-60.